TE 4103 SISTEM KOMUNIKASI BERGERAK Modul 6 Teknik-Teknik Mengatasi Fading

Jurusan Teknik Elektro Program Studi S1 INSTITUT TEKNOLOGI TELKOM 2008

Typical Mobile Radio Propagation Channel

Amplitude

Frequency

Time

Fading Mechanisms
Time dispersion
Time variations of the channel are caused by motion of the antenna Channel changes every half a wavelength Moving antenna gives Doppler spread Fast fading requires short packet durations, thus high bit rates Time dispersion poses requirements on synchronization and rate of convergence of channel estimation Interleaving may help to avoid burst errors

Frequency dispersion
Delayed reflections cause intersymbol interference (ISI) Channel Equalization may be needed. Frequency selective fading Multipath delay spreads require long symbol times Frequency diversity or spread spectrum may help

RSL Fluctuation

Shadowing, obstruction, etc

Time Dispersion and Frequency Dispersion

Time Dispersion Frequency Dispersion

Time Domain Interpretation Frequency Domain Interpretation

Channel variations Fast Fading Correlation Distance Doppler spectrum Intercarrier Interference

Delay spread InterSymbol Interference Channel equalization Frequency selective fading Coherence bandwidth

Effect of Fading
Freq. Selective Fading
Spectral density

Bs Bc Freq. Flat Fading Freq.

TX BW > Channel BW Bs > Bc

Spectral density

TX BW < Channel BW Bs < Bc Bs Coherent BW, Bc Freq.

Statistical Fluctuations
Area-mean power
is determined by path loss is an average over 100 m - 5 km
P (dB)

Local-mean power
is caused by local 'shadowing' effects has slow variations is an average over 40 (few meters)

d (m)

Instantaneous power
fluctuations are caused by multipath reception depends on location and frequency depends on time if antenna is in motion has fast variations (fades occur about every half a wave length)

Fading Mitigation Techniques

Three techniques commonly use to combat the effect of fading without increasing TX Power and BW: diversity, channel encoding, and equalization. While Fading margin and Power control are used to maintain a good signal reception at Receiver.

Fading Mitigation Technique: ( Diversity )

Diversity exploits the random nature of radio propagation by finding the independent signal paths. If one path undergo a deep fade, another path may have a strong signal. Usually employed to reduce the depth and duration of fade experienced by receiver in flat fading channel. Types of diversity: spatial, frequency, time, and polarization

Spatial Diversity
Use two or more receiving antenna While one antenna sees a null signal, the others may receive a peak signals. The received signals are then combined and processed by an algorithm to get best reception. Can be implemented in both BS and MS receiver

Spatial Diversity
ro(t) d r1(t) rK(t)

wo w
1

wK

y(t)

Processor

Antenna is spaced each other by an odd integer multiply of /4, usually d > 8 . Spatial diversity can improve SNR at receiver by as much as 20 dB to 30 dB.

Combining algorithm commonly used: Selective, Equal gain, and Maximal ratio combining.

Selective Combiner
Ant. 1
G1

Switching Logic Ant. 2 G2 or Demodulator

output

Ant. m Gm Variable gain

Selective Combining
Receiver only select one strongest signal to detect. If average SNR of received signal in a branch = , and threshold SNR = , then probability that M branches of antenna receive signals with SNR below the threshold is:

P( i < ) = PM( ) = (1 - e- / )
In other word, probability that received signal SNR above the threshold is :

P( i > ) = 1 - PM( ) = 1 (1 - e- / )

Selective Combining
Example: 4 antenna diversity is used. If average SNR is 20 dB,
determine the probability that SNR will drop below 10 dB (bad reception), and also that good reception (SNR above 10 dB) will mostly take place. Compare with single antenna receiver! = 10 dB, = 20 dB, / = 0.1

Answer:
Threshold SNR =

P4( i< 10 dB) = (1 e-0.1)4 = 0.000082, and P4( i> 10 dB) = 1- (1 e-0.1)4 = 0.999918 or 99.9918%
With single antenna:

P ( i< 10 dB) = (1 e-0.1) = 0.095, and P ( i> 10 dB) = 1- (1 e-0.1) = 0.905 or 90.5%
Improvement factor about 3 order in magnitude!

Max. Ratio Combiner

Ant. 1
G1

Ant. 2

Co-phase
2

G2

and Sum

Detector

output

Ant. m

Gm

Adaptive control Variable gain

Max. Ratio Combining

Signals from each branch/antenna are co-phased and individually weighted to provide coherent addition to get optimal SNR. Probability that received signal SNR below threshold is:

1 P( M

( / ) k 1 ) =1 e / k =1 ( k 1)!
M

Probability of good reception:

P( M ( / ) k 1 ) = 1 e / k =1 ( k 1)!
M

Equal Gain Combining

If weight of each branch is set to unity and co-phased, Max. ratio combining become equal gain combining. Less complex with slightly lower performance than max. ratio combining. Without continuously adapt each weight of branches differently, it allows receiver to exploit received signals simultaneously.

CDMA RAKE Receiver

Correlator 1 r(t)
IF or base band CDMA signal with multipath components

Z1 Z2

Correlator 2 . . Correlator m

. .

Int.

DC

m(t)

Zm

Since chip rate of CDMA much greater than coherence BW, delay spread merely provide a multiple delayed version of signals at receiver. Instead of causing ISI, RAKE receiver attempts to collect multipath signals, process it by separate correlator receiver, and combine the signals to have a better detection.

C(t)

C(t- 2)

delay adj.

korelator

BTS

C(t- n)

 Use two or more carrier frequency for transmission with spacing about 2 5 % f o. Need to employ two or more Transmitter and Receiver Improvement factor :

Frequency Diversity

F1

F1

TX

TX

TX

F2

F2

TX

RF Branching Network RX Combiner RX

F4 F3

RF Branching Network
F3

RX Combiner

F4

RX

Channel Equalizer
Channel equalizer is employed to compensate ISI. Since multipath fading channel is dynamic, equalizer must be adaptive
(i) (i-D) (i-D-v) (i-D-V+1)

z-1
b0

z-1
bD+v

z-1
bV-1

i time index V equalizer order D delay index

(i)

Adaptive algorithm

(i)o
u t

Types of Equalizer
Linear:
Transversal filter (Zero forcing, LMS, RLS, fast RLS, Sq. root RLS) Lattice Filter (Gradient RLS)

Non Linear:
DFE (LMS, RLS, Fast RLS, Sq. root RLS) ML Symbol Detection MLSE

Time Diversity
Read out bits to modulator one row at a time

1
Read in Coded bits from encoder

m+1 m+2
m r o w s

2
.

2m
n columns

nm

Channel Encoding
Channel encoding is done by encode the data into a special form, and introduce redundancies in the transmitted data. It protects data/information from error and distortion introduced by the channel. Redundant bits increase data rate hence the bandwidth, but improve BER performance especially in fading channel. Reduce BW efficiency of the link in high SNR condition, but provide excellent performance in low SNR condition Two types mostly used: Block Code and Convolutional code

Fading Margin
Fading margin depends upon target availability of the link/

coverage. Greater availability requires larger fading margin.

K u a d i t a m

s i n b a h

y f

Fading Margin
If fading margin FM applied to the link, then probability that RSL at receiver separated at distance R above the threshold can be written as:

1 1 FM PTh ( R ) = P(m Th ) = p(m)dm = erf 2 2 m 2 Th

Fading margin improve signal reception hence the link performance, in an expense of increasing transmission power.

Power Control
Mitigating the effect of shadowing and near-far problem
If user 1 at 3 km from BTS transmitting with 100 mWatt, how much power is needed by user 2 at 9 km away from BTS using Okumura Hatta model in urban area to achieve the same power at the BTS with 10 m high above ground level?
d2 d1 Pt1 Pr1 Basestation User 1 Pt2 Pr2 User 2

Answer: Path loss slope Hatta-Urban is( 44.9 6.55 log 10) =38.35. W2 = (d2/d1)3.835 W1 = 38.3 dBm =6.76 Watt

 Rayleigh fading
30

Power Control
Channel is estimated at the R e c e iv e d s ig n a l a m p lit u d e receiver, then Tx is instructed C o n t r o lle d t r a n s m it p o w e r C o n t r o lle d S IR ( t a r g e t = 1 0to B ) d adjust Tx power according to the estimated channel (e.g. SNR). Problem: Control rate >> fading rate Control step size single step or variable step What is the benefit/drawbacks of single or variable step size ?

20

10 Signal level (dB)

-1 0

-2 0

-3 0 0

50

100 150 200 T im e s lo t ( 0 . 6 7 m s )

250

300

Menjadi sangat fital karena sharing resource yang sama, setiap user berprilaku sebagai random noise terhadap yang lain.
Pr1 Pt Pr1

Pt

user 1

user 2

 Power kontrol sangat bagus

Subc-1 5 km Subc-1 Subc-2 10 km

Subc-2

power

Distribusi power di penerima

User 1

S/N = 1/10

User 2

S/N = 10 frekuensi

Kualitas voice user 2 >> user 1, fenomena ini disebut problem near-far. Dari dua user tadi kalau ditambahkan user ketiga akan menurunkan kualitas baik user 3 maupun dua user yang sudah ada.

Mengatasi problem near-far sehingga Pr(i) di BTS (up-link) akan sama. Jika syarat S/N tiap user = 1/10, maka kapasitas akan menjadi 11 user (meningkat signifikan).

Pr1 Pt Pr3

Pr2 PrM

Pt

user 2 user 1

user 3

user M

power
User 1, S/N = 1/10 User 2, S/N = 1/10 User 3, S/N = 1/10 User 4, S/N = 1/10 User 5, S/N = 1/10 User 6, S/N = 1/10 User 7, S/N = 1/10 User 8, S/N = 1/10 User 9, S/N = 1/10 User 10, S/N = 1/10 User 11, S/N = 1/10

frekuensi

Dengan power kontrol kapasitas dimaksimalkan

MS mengirim Pt maksimum ; pasti akan bisa diterima oleh BTS, namun interferensi akan meningkat MS mengirim Pt minimum ; ada kemungkinan tidak diterima oleh BTS tetapi interferensi sangat kecil IS-95 memberi solusi dengan :
Open loop mekanisme initial transmit power tanpa bantuan BTS Close loop mekanisme pengendalian transmit power dengan

bantuan BTS

 Untuk mengatasi log-normal shadowing Dengan access probe Pt MS diestimasi dengan Pr MS

Pt(1) = -Pr - 73 +NOM_PWR +INIT_PWR

IS-95

Pt Pr
Access probe

PATH LOSS

Signal Level (dBm)

LOGNORMAL FADING (fading lambat)

RAYLEIGH FADING (fading cepat)

Distance (km)

MS trans. power

Koreksi access probe kedua

Koreksi access probe pertama initial

random

random

Waktu

Untuk mengatasi fluktuasi receive power karena Rayleigh fading (fading cepat). BTS memeriksa kualitas up-link secara kontinyu. Jika kualitas jelek, BTS akan mengirim command(PCB)via down-link untuk menaikan Pt MS. Jika kualitas terlalu bagus akan dilakukan hal sebaliknya. Eb/N0 digunakan sebagai indikator kualitas link. PCB = +1dB jika Pt MS harus dinaikan dan -1dB jika sebaliknya Karena digunakan untuk mengatasi fading cepat, maka proses pengendalian harus berlangsung cepat sehingga PCB

disisipkan pada kanal traffik arah down-link

Power control (PCB) 800 bps 0 atau 1 tanpa proteksi

VOCODER

KONVOLUSI

MUX

SPREADING

9,6 kbps

19,2 kbps Power control bit position

19,2 kbps

1,2288 Mcps

20ms
PCG0 PCG1 PCG2 PCG3 PCG7 PCG12 PCG13 PCG14 PCG15

1,25 ms

Probabilitas meletakan PCB

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

PCB = 0 MS harus naik 1 dB PCB = 1 MS harus turun 1 dB

1 0 1 1 CONTROL POSITION

(11)10

Eb/N0 diukur di BTS

UL
PCG0 PCG1 PCG2 PCG3 PCG4 PCG5 PCG6 PCG7 PCG8

Selama menerima PCG8 BTS memutuskan kirim 1 atau 0

DL
PCG0 PCG1 PCG2 PCG3 PCG4 PCG5 PCG6 PCG7 PCG8 PCG9

BTS MENGIRIM PCB

FTC

TRANSMITTER

KE MS PCB DARI MS

ESTIMASI Eb/N0

RX

DECISION EST >Th PCB = 1 EST < Th PCB = 0

DEM

ESTIMASI FER

Th. Eb/N0

BASE STATION

TRANSMITTER

RTC

Pt yang harus dipakai selama 1,25 ms DECISION PCB = 0 , +1dB PCB = 1, -1dB DEM RX

+1 dB atau -1 dB

INIT_PWR (dB)

NOM_PWR (dB) K= -73 (dB)

TCH

(-1) -Pr

Pr

ESTIMASI RX TOTAL

MOBILE STATION

Some practical approaches

How to handle fast multipath fading

Aa g n lo
U se ust e k ly r m sp a slow

GM S
E rro rrectio a d in rlea g to a n n te vin void r co b urst e rrors E rro e ctio n e e d g r d te n a d spe ch d co in F d a in a ll la n e m rg s in ce p n ing

DC E T
D ive cep n a tio rsity re tio at b se sta n

IS 5 (CDMA2000) 9
W id an n ission a ra e cha n l ve g s ne eb d tra sm b a u eh vio r T is a id bu e rs a d d e fa e h vo s rst rro n e p d s

How do systems handle Doppler spreads?

Analog
Carrier frequency is low enough to avoid problems

GSM
Channel bit rate well above Doppler spread TDMA during each bit / burst transmission the channel is fairly constant. Receiver training/updating during each transmission burst Feedback frequency correction

DECT
Only small Doppler spreads are to be anticipated for Original DECT concept did not standardize an equalizer

IS95 (CDMA2000)
Downlink: Pilot signal for synchronization and channel estimation Uplink: Continuous tracking of each signal

How do systems handle delay spreads?

Analog Narrowband transmission GSM Adaptive channelequalization Channel estimation training sequence DECT Use the handset only in small cells with small delay spreads Diversity and channel selection can help a little bit pick a channel where late reflections are in a fade

IS95 Rake receiver separately recovers signals over paths with excessive delay Digital Audio Broacasting OFDM multi-carrier modulation The radio channel is split into many narrowband (ISI-free)subchannels