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Human Computer Interaction, 2nd Ed. Dix, Finlay, Abowd, and Beale Chapter 1
Introduction
About HCI and humans Interaction captured in figure below with system, task, user
So far, have talked about interface design of system
Guidelines, principles, evaluation, etc.
System
Task
and its representation (possibly manipulable)
feedback
User
Introduction
On describing humans
To understate, a question of long standing
One of the big questions
Has and can be done in various ways and at different levels of analysis
Moral, spiritual, ., psychological, physiological, chemical Reductionist
Psychology focuses on the individual Many orientations through psychologys short history
Note: Clinical/personality orientations, e.g., Freud, Jung, have their own utility in explanation, but are rarely subject to scientific investigation Structural, turn of 20th century, relations among elements Gestalt, 1930s and on, general, especially of perception, still useful Behaviorist, all S->R, which is fine for some things, but fall short for explanation of mental phenomena Information processing/Cognitive, current orientation
Influences from Shannons ideas on information, shortcomings of behaviorism, successes in codifying information in computing Human information processor
Modeling Humans
Any theory or model is an abstraction For HCI, goals are primarily in Computer and Interaction
Utility of human model lies in how well it helps with interfaces
Overview
Dix et al. model:
Information i/o visual, auditory, haptic, movement Information stored in memory sensory, short-term, long-term Information processed and applied reasoning, problem solving, skill, error
Idea tonight
Give broad overview of elements of human Show that for some elements of user interface design, detailed knowledge is at least useful and perhaps critical
Some Terminology
Sensation Perception Cognition
Latin
cognitio knowledge
Demo
Demo
Perceptual processor
Recognizes symbols, phonemes Aided by LTM
Cognitive processor
Uses recognized symbols Makes comparisons and decisions Problem solving Interacts with LTM and WM
Motor processor
Input from cog. proc. for action Instructs muscles Feedback
Results of muscles by senses
Attention
Allocation of resources
Memory properties
Decay time: how long memory lasts Size: number of things stored Encoding: type of things stored
Vision
Vision and visual perception studied across a range of disciplines Points tonight meant to highlight usefulness for HCI in knowing about vision For vision consider (Dix):
Physical reception of stimulus Processing and interpretation of stimulus
Focus on human vision (because of computer), but all share basic notions Humans have receptors for (a small part of) the electromagnetic spectrum
Have receptors sensitive to (fire when excited by) energy 400700nm Snakes see infrared, some insects ultraviolet
i.e., have receptors that fire
What would life be like if humans could see other parts of electromagnetic spectrum???
Rods:
spread all over the retinal surface (75 - 150 million) low resolution, no color vision, but very sensitive to low light (scotopic or dim-light vision)
Cones:
dense array around central portion of retina - fovea centralis (6 - 7 million) high-resolution, color vision, but require brighter light (photopic or bright-light vision)
Near
43 cm 75 cm 1.2m 1.5m
Far
60 cm 1.5 m 6.0m Infinity
Depth of focus
17 cm 75 cm 1.8 m Large
Photographic Images:
Depth of field longer with small aperture (f stop) Range of focus:
Distance
50 cm 1m 2m 3m
Near
43 cm 75 cm 1.2m 1.5m
Far
60 cm 1.5 m 6.0m Infinity
Depth of focus
17 cm 75 cm 1.8 m Large
Strong illusory depth effects Human eye has no correction for chromatic aberration!
Inadvisable: fine blue patterns in visualizations! Visual effects in soap bubbles, crystal sculptures, etc.
Brightness
Human system not map directly to physical
Color
Different sensory elements responsible for perception of color Implications for color use, e.g., color blindness
Superacuities
Resolution above what expected by receptor density due to integration of signals
Letter acuity
5 minute of arc Ability to resolve letters Snellen eye chart
20/20 means a 5-minute letter target can be seen 90% of time
Stereo acuity
10 seconds of arc Ability to resolve objects in depth Measured as difference between 2 angles (a and b) for a just-detectable difference
Vernier acuity
10 seconds of arc Ability to see if two lines are collinear
Next slide (tries) demonstrate equi-resolvability of characters as a function of distance from fovea
r = f(dist. fovea) (stare at center and see smaller characters at center as well or better than those at periphery)
Brightness
Perceived amount of light coming from a source Here, will refer to things perceived as self-luminous
Lightness
Perceived reflectance of a surface E.g., white surface is light, black surface is dark
Again,
Physical - Luminance
Number of photons coming from a region of space
Perceptual - Brightness
Amount of light coming from a glowing source
Lightness
Reflectance of a surface, paint shade
FYI: Luminance
Amount of light (energy) hitting the eye To take into account human observer:
Weighted by the sensitivity of the photoreceptors to each wavelength
Spectral sensitivity function:
700
L ! VP EPHP
400
E.g., humans about 100 times less sensitive to light at 450nm than at 510nm Note, use of blue for detail, e.g., text, not seem good
Compounded by chromatic aberration in which blue focuses at different point
FYI: Brightness
Perceived amount of light coming from a glowing (self-luminous) object
E.g., instruments
Enables high sensitivity at low levels without saturation at high levels Just-noticeable difference depends on value
Trichromacy Theory
Recall, that there are 2 types of retinal receptors:
Rods, low light, monochrome
So overstimulated at all but low levels contribute little So only consider cones for color vision
Distribution of receptors across the retina, left eye shown; the cones are concentrated in the fovea, which is ringed by a dense concentration of rods
http://www.handprint.com/HP/WCL/color1.html#oppmodel
Trichromacy Theory
Cones (3 types) differentially sensitive to wavelengths
trichromacy
Each type cone has different peak sensitivity:
S: 450 nm blue M: 540 nm green L: 580 nm red More later
Color space:
An arrangement of colors in a 3-dimensional space
Monitor: R,G,B Primary paint colors: R,Y,B Printer: cyan, magenta, yellow
There are many, each designed for different purposes Will consider several Can match all colors perceived with 3 colors
Does not matter that spectral composition of that patch of light may be completely different
Different gamut, more later
Cone response space, defined by response of each of the three cone types. Becomes 2d with color deficiency
Relative sensitivity curves for the three types of cones, log vertical scale, cone spectral curves from Vos & Walraven, 1974
Relative sensitivity curves for the three types of cones, the Vos & Walraven curves on a normal vertical scale
Color Blindness
~9% male, and ~1% females have some form of color vision deficiency! Most common:
Lack of long wave length sensitive receptors (red, protanopia)
See figure at right bottome
Guideline: dont use blue against dark backgrounds where small details matter (like text!)
Contrast illusion
An illusion is an extreme case
Somewhat surprising because it leads to error
FYI: Afterimage
Occurs due to bleaching of photopigments
(demo next slide)
Implications for misperceiving (especially contiguous colors and black and white)
I thought I saw
To illustrate:
Stare at + sign on left
May see colors around circle
Afterimage Example
Context is used to resolve ambiguity Optical illusions sometimes occur due to over compensation
Gray patch on a dark background looks lighter than the same patch on a light background
Predicted by DOG model of concentric opponent receptive fields
At point where uniform area meets a luminance ramp, bright band is perceived
Said another way, appear where abrupt change in first derivative of brightness profile Simulated by DOG model Particularly a problem for uniformly shaded polygons in computer graphics
Hence, various methods of smoothing are applied
However, correct application generally requires understanding of context in psychology, and an understanding of particular experimental conditions A lot of knowledge has been distilled in
guidelines cognitive models experimental and analytic evaluation techniques
End ?
Optical Illusions
Optical Illusions
Hearing
Provides information about environment:
distances, directions, objects etc.
Physical apparatus:
outer ear middle ear inner ear protects inner and amplifies sound transmits sound waves as
vibrations to inner ear chemical transmitters are released and cause impulses in auditory nerve
Sound
pitch loudness timbre sound frequency amplitude type or quality
Hearing (cont)
Humans can hear frequencies from 20Hz to 15kHz
less accurate distinguishing high frequencies than low.
Touch
Provides important feedback about environment May be key sense for someone who is visually impaired Stimulus received via receptors in the skin
thermoreceptors nociceptors mechanoreceptors heat and cold pain pressure
(some instant, some continuous)
Some areas more sensitive than others, e.g., fingers Kinethesis - awareness of body position
affects comfort and performance.
Movement
Time taken to respond to stimulus: reaction time + movement time Movement time dependent on age, fitness etc. Reaction time - dependent on stimulus type:
visual auditory pain ~ 200ms ~ 150 ms ~ 700ms
Increasing reaction time decreases accuracy in the unskilled operator but not in the skilled operator.
Mt = a + b log2(D/S + 1)
where: a and b are empirically determined constants Mt is movement time D is Distance S is Size of target
However, correct application generally requires understanding of context in psychology, and an understanding of particular experimental conditions A lot of knowledge has been distilled in
guidelines cognitive models experimental and analytic evaluation techniques
End