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Measurand
Data storage
Data transmission
Figure 1.1 The sensor converts energy or information from the measurand to another form (usually electric). This signal is the processed and displayed so that humans can perceive the information. Elements and connections shown by dashed lines are optional for some applications.
Sensor
Converts a physical measurand to an electrical output Interface with living system Minimize the energy extracted Minimally invasive
pressure displacement diaphragm Strain gage electric voltage
Signal Conditioning
Amplification Filtering Impedance matching Analog/Digital for signal processing Signal form (time and frequency domains)
Output Display
Numerical Graphical Discrete or continuous Visual Hearing
Auxiliary Element
Calibration Signal Control and Feedback (auto or manual)
Adjust sensor and signal conditioning
Principle of transduction
resistive, capacitive, electrochemical, ultrasound
Organ system
cardiovascular, pulmonary, nervous
Medicine specialties
pediatrics, cardiology, radiology
vecg
Z1 Z2 Zbody
+Vcc
Differential amplifier
vo
Displacement currents
Vcc
Desired input: Electrocardiographic voltage Vecg Interfering input: voltage due to 60-Hz
Figure 1.2 Simplified electrocardiographic recording system Two possible interfering inputs are stray magnetic fields and capacitively coupled noise. Orientation of patient cables and changes in electrode-skin impedance are two possible modifying inputs. Z1 and Z2 represent the electrode-skin interface impedances.
Gd y! xd 1 H f Gd
Compensation Techniques- Example An amplifier with gain 10 that has 20% fluctuation due to temperature and environmental change. How will compensate the system to minimize the fluctuation?
1.8 Biostatistics
Applications of Statistics to medical data
-Design experiment -Clinical Study: summarize, explore, analyze -Draw inference from data: estimation, hypothesis -Evaluate diagnostic procedures: assist clinical decision making
Statistical Measurements
Measures of the mean and central tendency -Mean X X !
i
-Median: Middle value (used for skewed data) -Mode: is the observation that occurs most frequently -Geometric Mean: used with data on a logarithmic scale
GM ! n X 1 X 2 X 3 X n
X
n 1
For symmetric distribution 75% of the data lies between (mean - 2s) and (mean + 2s) Coefficient of variation: standardize the variation to compare data measured in different scales.
s CV ! X 100 %
Statistical Measurements
Percentile: gives the percentage of a distribution that is less than or equal to the percentile number. Standard error of the mean (SEM): Express the variability to be expected among the mean in future samples. Correlation Coefficient r: is a measure of a linear relationship between numerical variables x and y for paired observations
r!
X X
i
X Yi Y
2 i
X
Y Y
Methods for inference about a value in a population of subjects from a set of observations. Estimation and confidence of interval:
are used to estimate specific parameters such as the mean and the variance.
Characteristics of Instrument Performance Two classes of characteristics are used to evaluated and compare new instrument Static Characteristics: describe the performance for dc or very low frequency input. Dynamic Characteristics: describe the performance for ac and high frequency input.
Finding static sensitivity Gd using line equation with the minimal sum of the squared difference between data points and the line
y ! mx d b
m!
n xd y xd
y
n x xd
2 d 2
y
x
x y
x
b! n x x
2 d d d 2 d 2 d
Zero Drift: all output values increase or decrease by the same amount due to manufacturing misalignment, variation in ambient temperature, vibration,. Sensitivity Drift: Output change in proportion to the
magnitude of the input. Change in the slope of the calibration curve.
Figure 1.3 (b) Static sensitivity: zero drift and sensitivity drift. Dotted lines indicate that zero drift and sensitivity drift can be negative.
x1
y1
(x1 + x2)
(y1 + y2)
x2
Linear system
y2
(a)
Kx1
Linear system
Ky1
Figure 1.4 (a) Basic definition of linearity for a system or element. The same linear system or element is shown four times for different inputs. (b) A graphical illustration of independent nonlinearity equals sA% of the reading, or sB% of full scale, whichever is greater (that is, whichever permits the larger error).
Example
A linear system described by the following equation y=2x+3. Find the overall tolerance band for the system if the input range is 0 to 10 and its independent nonlinearity is 0.5% deviation of the full scale and 1.5% deviation of the reading.
Input Impedance:
disturb the quantity being measured. Xd1 : desired input (voltage, force, pressure) Xd2 : implicit input (current, velocity, flow) P = Xd1.Xd2 :Power transferred across the tissue-sensor interface Generalized input impedance Zx
X d1 effort variable Zx ! ! X d2 flow variable
P ! X d1 X d2
X 2 ! ! Z x X d2 Zx
2 d1
Goal: Minimize P, when measuring effort variable Xd1, by maximizing Zx which in return will minimize the flow variable Xd2. Loading effect is minimized when source impedance Zs is much smaller then the Zx
a D
n
a1 D a 0 y (t ) ! bm D m b1 D b0 x(t )
Transfer Functions
The output can be predicted for any input (transient, periodic, or random) m
y ( D ) bm D b1 D b0 ! x( D) a n D n a1 D a0
y ( D ) bm D b1 D b0 ! x( D ) a n D n a1 D a 0
m
Y ( j ) bm ( j ) m b1 ( j ) b0 ! H ( j[ ) ! X ( j ) an ( j ) n a1 ( j ) a0
Example:
If then x(t) = Ax sin ([ t) y(t) = |H([)| Ax sin ([ t + /_H([))
K: static sensitivity
Figure 1.5 (a) A linear potentiometer, an example of a zero-order system. (b) Linear static characteristic for this system. (c) Step response is proportional to input. (d) Sinusoidal frequency response is constant with zero phase shift.
First-Order Instrument
dy (t ) a1 a 0 y (t ) ! b0 x(t ) dt
D 1
y (t ) ! Kx(t )
a1 X ! a0
y ( D) K ! x( D ) 1 D Y j X j
y t ! K 1 e t / X
b0 K ! a0
! K 1 j Y j K ! X j 1 2
J ! arctan
/1
First-Order Instrument
Output y(t) R
dy (t ) RC y (t ) ! x (t ) dt
X ! RC K ! 1 x (t ) ! 1
x(t)
y(t)
Slope = K = 1
y ( D) K ! x( D ) 1 D
1
y t ! K 1 e
t / X
t (c) y(t)
1.0 0.707 XL [L
(d)
XS
[S
Log scale [
1 0.63
0 45 90 t XL
XS
Log scale [
XS
XL
Second-Order Instrument
Many medical instrument are 2nd order or higher
a2 d y t
dy t
a1 a 0 y t
! b0 xt
2 dt dt
2
D2 2 D 1 y t ! Kxt 2 n n
a1 2 a0 a2
y D
! 2 xD
D
2 n
K 2 D
n
1
! K
j / n
2 2 j / n
1 Y j
K ! 2 2 X j
1 ? /
A 4 2 2 /
n
J ! arctan
2 n
2 / n
y(t)
Output y(t)
K ! 1/ K s
(a)
Slope K =
Ks M
(b)
Natural freq.
1
x(t)
B ! 2 KsM
Damping ratio
(c) y(t) yn
n+1
t (d) J
Log scale [ 0 Figure 1.7 (a) Force-measuring y 0.5 2 1 1 spring scale, an example of a K -90 second-order instrument. (b) 0.5 1 2 -180 Static sensitivity. t (c) Step response for overdamped case ^ = 2, critically damped case ^ = 1, underdamped case ^ = 0.5. (d) Sinusoidal steady-state frequency response, ^ = 2, ^ = 1, ^ = 0.5.
s
[n
Overdamped
y t
! 2
2 2
" 1:
1
Ke
1
nt
2
2
1
Ke
1
nt
K
1
1
Critically damped
! 1:
nt
y t
! 1
Underdamped
y t
! e 1 J ! arcsin 1
nt
t Ke
K
1:
K sin 1
2
2 n
t J K
1 Ks 0.5
y(t)
Example 1.2: for underdamped second-order instruments, find the damping ratio from the step response
y t
! e 1
nt
K sin 1
2 n
t J K
tn !
3 / 2 J
n
and
1
t n 1 !
7 / 2 J
n
1
yn ! yn 1 K 1 2 ! exp 1
K 1
exp exp
3 / 2 J n 2 n 1 7 / 2 J n 2 n 1
yn 2 !0! ln y 1 n 1
!
2
0 4
2
02
Logarithmic decrement
t"
Log scale K
d
Y (j[
X (j[
! Ke j
Xd
Log scale [
J
0
Log scale [
Design Criteria
Figure 1.8 Design process for medical instruments Choice and design of instruments are affected by signal factors, and also by environmental, medical, and economic factors.
2 Ways for Medical Devices Classification First Way: (based on potential hazards)
Class I: general controls Class II: performance standards Class III: premarketing approval