Scheduling & Random Access

Communication Networks
Topic 6: TDMA FDMA CDMA Objective: Explain and Analyze Multi-access Communication Protocols . (Refer T1-Ch.4; T2-Ch. 4 & 6 + Class Notes)
ECE C394 Communication Networks Topic 7: ALOHA, Polling, Random Access
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Shared media basis for broadcast networks
Medium Access Control Protocols

Inexpensive: radio over air; copper or coaxial cable M users communicate by broadcasting into medium
Key issue: How to share the medium?

3 1 2 4
Shared multiple access medium

M
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Approaches to Media Sharing

Medium sharing techniques
Static / Semi-static Channelization Dynamic medium access control
Partition medium Dedicated allocation to users Satellite transmission Cellular Telephone
Scheduling
Random access
Polling: take turns Request for slot in transmission schedule Token ring Wireless LANs
Loose coordination Send, wait, retry if necessary Aloha Ethernet

3
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Scheduling & Random Access

(Other than Channelization) And Performance Measures
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Scheduling: Polling
Data from 1 from 2 Data Poll 1 Poll 2 1 2
Inbound line
Data to M
Host computer
Outbound line
3 M
Stations
Scheduling: Token-Passing
Ring networks
token
Data to M token
Station that holds token transmits into ring

Random Access
Multitapped Bus Crash!!
Transmit when ready Transmissions can occur; need retransmission strategy
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Wireless LAN
AdHoc: station-to-station Infrastructure: stations to base station Random access & polling
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Selecting a Medium Access Control

Applications
What type of traffic? Voice streams? Steady traffic, low delay/jitter Data? Short messages? Web page downloads? Enterprise or Consumer market? Reliability, cost
Scale
How much traffic can be carried? How many users can be supported?
Current Examples:
Design MAC to provide wireless DSL-equivalent access to rural communities Design MAC to provide Wireless-LAN-equivalent access to mobile users (user in car travelling at 130 km/hr)
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Delay-bandwidth product key parameter
Delay-Bandwidth Product
Coordination in sharing medium involves using bandwidth (explicitly or implicitly) Difficulty of coordination commensurate with delaybandwidth product
Simple two-station example

Station with frame to send listens to medium and transmits if medium found idle Station monitors medium to detect collision If collision occurs, station that begin transmitting earlier retransmits (propagation time is known)
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Two-Station MAC Example

Two stations are trying to share a common medium
A transmits at t = 0
Distance d meters tprop = d / seconds A B

B does not transmit before t = tprop & A captures channel B transmits before t = tprop and detects collision soon thereafter
Case 1
Case 2
A
A detects collision at t = 2 tprop
B B
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Efficiency requiresTwo-Station Example of 2t of quiet time Each frame transmission

pp ro
Station B needs to be quiet tprop before and after time when Station A transmits; so, Waiting time=2tprop R transmission bit rate (Note is different from Effe. Throughput, Reff .) L bits/frame; Sending station requires X=L/R secs for transmitting its frame. Effe. Throughput is Actual rate (bps) at which info. sent over channel Efficiency is Normalized Maximum throughput (= Reff./R). Normalized delay-b/w product (a) = ratio of 1-way delay b/w product to avg. frame length.
MaxThrough put = Reff
Efficiency = max
Normalized Delay-Bandwidth Product
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L 1 1 = = = L + 2t prop R 1 + 2t prop R / L 1 + 2a
L 1 = = R bits/secon d L / R + 2t prop 1 + 2a
a=
t prop L/R
Propagation delay Time to transmit a frame

12
Summary of Two Stations example

When a is much larger than 1, the medium can be used very efficiently by using the above protocol. If a = 0.01, then the efficiency = 1/1.02 = 0.98. As a becomes larger, channel becomes more inefficient. (if a=0.5, efficiency =0.5)
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Typical MAC Efficiencies

Two-Station Example:
1 Efficiency = 1 + 2a
CSMA-CD (Ethernet) protocol:
1 Efficiency = 1 + 6.44a
Token-ring network
If a<<1, then efficiency close to 100% As a approaches 1, the efficiency becomes low
1 Efficiency = 1 + a
a= latency of the ring (bits)/average frame length
Distance
Typical Delay-Bandwidth Products

10 Mbps 100 Mbps 1 Gbps Network Type 1 m 3.33 x 10-02 3.33 x 10-01 3.33 x 100 Desk area network 100 m 3.33 x 1001 3.33 x 1002 3.33 x 1003 Local area network 10 km 3.33 x 1002 3.33 x 1003 3.33 x 1004 Metropolitan area network 1000 km 3.33 x 1004 3.33 x 1005 3.33 x 1006 Wide area network
100000 km 3.33 x 1006 3.33 x 1007 3.33 x 1008 Global area network
Max size Ethernet frame: 1500 bytes = 12000 bits Long and/or fat pipes give large a
MAC protocol features

Delay-bandwidth product Efficiency Transfer delay Fairness Reliability Capability to carry different types of traffic Quality of service Cost
ECE C394 Communication Networks Topic 7: ALOHA, Polling, Random Access 16
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MAC Delay Performance

Frame transfer delay Throughput
From first bit of frame arrives at source MAC To last bit of frame delivered at destination MAC Actual transfer rate through the shared medium Measured in frames/sec or bits/sec R bits/sec & L bits/frame X=L/R seconds/frame frames/second average arrival rate Load = X, rate at which work arrives Maximum throughput (@100% efficiency): R/L fr/sec
Parameters
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E[T]/X
Normalized Delay versus Load

E[T] = average frame transfer delay X = average frame transmission time
1 Load
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m a x
At low arrival rate, only frame transmission time At high arrival rates, increasingly longer waits to access channel Max efficiency typically less than 100%
18
Transfer delay
Dependence on Rtprop /L
E[T]/X
a > a a a
Transfer Delay
1 max Load
mx a
Delay Performance of Channelization Schemes
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traffic onto a shared line Packets are encapsulated in frames and queued in a buffer prior to transmission Central control allows variety of service disciplines
Statistical Multiplexing & Random Access allows sharing of a broadcast Multiplexing concentrates bursty MAC
medium Packets are encapsulated in frames and queued at station prior to transmission Decentralized control wastes bandwidth to allow sharing
A Shared Medium
Buffer
R bps
C Input lines
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R bps
C Input lines
21
Output line
Performance Issues in Statistical Multiplexing & Multiple Access

Application Properties How often are packets generated? How long are packets? What are loss & delay requirements?
System Performance Transfer Delay Packet/frame Loss Efficiency & Throughput Priority, scheduling, & QoS
A Shared Medium
Buffer
R bps
C Input lines
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R bps
C Input lines
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Output line
M/G/1 Queueing Model for Statistical Multiplexer

Poisson Arrivals rate
buffer
General service time X

server
Arrival Model
Independent frame interarrival times: Average 1/ Exponential distribution Poisson Arrivals
Frame Length Model

Independent frame transmission times X Average E[X] = 1/ General distribution Constant, exponential,
Load = /
Stability Condition: <1
Infinite Buffer
No Blocking
We will use M/G/1 model as baseline for MAC performance

M/G/1 Performance Results

Total Delay = Waiting Time + Service Time Average Waiting Time:
2 X E[W ] = (1 + ) E[ X ] 2 2(1 ) E[ X ]
(From Appendix A)
Average Total Delay: E[T ] = E[W ] + E[ X ] Example: M/D/1

E[W ] = E[ X ] 2(1 )
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In M/G/1 model, a frame arriving to an empty multiplexer begins transmission immediately In many MACs, there is a delay before transmission can begin M/G/1 Vacation Model: when system empties, server goes away on vacation for random time V
M/G/1 Vacation Model
2 X E[V 2 ] E[W ] = (1 + ) E[ X ] + 2 2(1 ) E[ X ] 2 E[V ]
Extra delay term

Performance of FDMA & CDMA Channelization Bursty Traffic

1 2
R/M R/M Channelized Medium
R/M
M stations do not interact Poisson arrivals /M fr/sec Constant frame length L bits Transmission time at full rate X=L/R Station bit rate is R/M Neglect guardbands Transmission time from station L/(R/M)=M(L/R) =MX M times longer Load at one station: = ( / ) X= = X
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...
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Transfer Delay for FDMA and CDMA

ML/R ML/R ML/R ML/R
Time-slotted transmission from each station When station becomes empty, transmitter goes on vacation for 1 time slot of constant duration V=MX
V MX E[WFDMA ] = MX + = MX + 2(1 ) 2 2(1 ) 2

Average Total Transfer Delay is:
MX E[TFDMA ] = E[TFDMA ] + MX = MX + + MX 2(1 ) 2

The delay increases in proportion with M, the number of stations Allocated bandwidth to a given station is wasted when other stations have data to send
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Transfer Delay of TDMA & CDMA

FDMA
Our frame arrives and finds two frames in queue First frame transmitted 0 3 Second frame transmitted 6 Our frame finishes transmission 9 t
TDMA
FDMA & TDMA have same waiting time
Our frame arrives and finds two frames in queue
Last TDMA frame finishes sooner Our frame finishes transmission
0 1 First frame transmitted

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3 4 Second frame transmitted
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Transfer Delay for TDMA

Time-slotted transmission from each station Same waiting time as FDMA
MX E[WTDMA ] = MX + 2(1 ) 2
Frame service time is X Average Total Transfer Delay is:
MX E[TTDMA ] = MX + +X 2(1 ) 2
Better than FDMA & CDMA Total Delay still grows proportional to M
TDMA Average Transfer Delay
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ALOHA
Wireless link to provide data transfer between main campus & remote campuses of University of Hawaii Simplest solution: just do it
A station transmits whenever it has data to transmit If more than one frames are transmitted, they interfere with each other (collide) and are lost If ACK not received within timeout, then a station picks random backoff time (to avoid repeated collision) Station retransmits frame after backoff time First transmission t0-X t0 t0+X Retransmission t t0+X+2tprop Time-out
Backoff period B
t0+X+2tprop + B
Vulnerable period
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ALOHA Model
Definitions and assumptions X frame transmission time (assume constant) S: throughput (average # successful frame transmissions per X seconds) G: load (average # transmission attempts per X sec.) Psuccess : probability a frame transmission is successful
S = GPsuccess
X Prior interval
X frame transmission
Any transmission that begins during vulnerable period leads to collision Success if no arrivals during 2X seconds
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Abramsons Assumption
What is probability of no arrivals in vulnerable period? Abramson assumption: Effect of backoff algorithm is that frame arrivals are equally likely to occur at any time interval G is avg. # arrivals per X seconds Divide X into n intervals of duration =X/n p = probability of arrival in interval, then G = n p since there are n intervals in X seconds
Psuccess = P[0 arrivals in 2X seconds] = = P[0 arrivals in 2n intervals] G 2n 2n 2G = (1 - p) = (1 ) e as n n

Throughput of ALOHA
S = GPsuccess = Ge
0.2 0.18 0.16 0.14 0.12 0.1 0.08 0.06 0.04 0.02 0
0 0. 00 78 12 5 0. 01 56 25 0. 03 12 5 0. 06 25 0. 12 5 0. 25
2 G
e-2 = 0.184
Collisions are means for coordinating access Max throughput is mx = 1/2e (18.4%) at a G=0.5 This corresponds to a total arrival rate of exactly one frame / vulnerable period. Bimodal behavior:
Small G, SG Large G, S0
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Collisions can snowball and drop throughput to G zero 2 or more arrivals in vulnerable period result ECE C394 Communication Networks collision. 34 Topic 7: ALOHA, Polling, Random Access
0. 5
Slotted ALOHA
Time is slotted in X seconds slots. Frames are assumed to be constant and to occupy 1 time slot. Stations synchronized to frame time. All stations keep track of Tx time slots & initiate Tx at the beginning of one time slot. Stations transmit frames in first slot after frame arrival Backoff intervals in multiples of slots
Backoff period kX (k+1)X t0 +X+2tprop Time-out
B t t0 +X+2tprop + B
Only frames that arrive during prior X seconds collide (No collisions in in t0+X from to). Vulnerable period is now X sec. long (not 2X)
Vulnerabl eperiod
Throughput of Slotted ALOHA

Still a bimodal S = GPsuccess = GP[no arrivals in X seconds] behavior; = GP[no arrivals in n intervals] Max. at G=1; S=1/e=36.8%. G n n G = G (1 p ) = G (1 ) Ge The ALOHA and n Slotted ALOHA systems show how 0.368 low-delay frame transmission is -G Ge S possible using 0.184 essentially uncoordinated access Ge-2G to the medium. This is at the expense of significant wastage due to collisions. G
0.4 0.35 0.3 0.25 0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05 0 0.01563 0.03125 0.0625 0.125 0.25 0.5 1 2 4
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Application of Slotted Aloha

cycle
...
Reservation mini-slots X-second slot
...
Reservation protocol allows a large number of stations with infrequent traffic to reserve slots to transmit their frames in future cycles Each cycle has mini-slots allocated for making reservations Stations use slotted Aloha during mini-slots to request slots
Reduce BW wastage by avoiding Tx. that are certain to collide. A station senses the channel before it starts transmission
If busy, either wait or schedule backoff (different options) If idle, start transmission Vulnerable period is reduced to tprop (due to channel capture effect) When collisions occur they involve entire frame transmission times If tprop >X (or if a>1), no gain compared to ALOHA or slotted ALOHA
Station A begins transmission at t=0
Carrier Sensing Multiple Access (CSMA)
Station A captures channel at t = tprop

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A
CSMA Optionssensed: (a)persist, Transmitter behavior when busy channel is

(b)backoff immediately, or (c)persist and attempt Tx with a probability p.
1-persistent CSMA (most greedy) Start transmission as soon as the channel becomes idle Low delay and low efficiency Non-persistent CSMA (least greedy) Wait a backoff period, then sense carrier again by rescheduling a resensing time and not persisting reducing collisions compared to 1persistent scheme. High delay and high efficiency p-persistent CSMA (adjustable greedy) Wait till channel becomes idle, transmit with prob. p; or wait one minislot time & re-sense with probability 1-p Increased likelihood that a waiting station successfully seize medium. Delay and efficiency can be balanced
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Sensing
39
1-Persistent CSMA Throughput

S
0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 1 2 4 8 16 32 0.06 0.02 0.03 0.13 0.25 0.5
0.53
0.45 0.16
Better than Aloha & slotted Aloha for small a = 0.01 Normalized prop. Delay: a = a =0.1 tprop /X
64
Worse than Aloha for a > 1
a=1
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Non-Persistent CSMA Throughput

a = 0.01
S
0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 1 0.5 0.02 0.03 0.06 0.13 0.25
0.81
0.51
0.14
2 4 8 32 16 64
a=1
Higher maximum throughput than a = 0.1 1-persistent for small a G Worse than Aloha for a > 1
- CSMA schemes improve over ALOHA schemes by reducing vulnerable period from one- or two-frame transmission times to a single prop. delay tprop . - In both ALOHA and CSMA schemes, collisions involve entire frame Transmission.
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Monitor for collisions & abort transmission Stations with frames to send, first do carrier sensing After beginning transmissions, stations continue listening to the medium to detect collisions If collisions detected, all stations involved stop transmission, reschedule random backoff times, and try again at scheduled times In CSMA collisions result in wastage of X seconds spent transmitting an entire frame CSMA-CD reduces wastage to time to detect collision and abort transmission
CSMA with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD)
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CSMA/CD reaction time = 2tprop

A begins to transmit at A t=0
B B
A
A detects collision at A t= 2 tprop -
B begins to transmit at t = tprop - ; B detects collision at t = tprop
It takes 2 tprop for, station A, to find out if channel has been captured. Station that detects collision transmits a short jamming signal to ensure that others know of collision before aborting Tx & the back-off algo is used to schedule a future resensing time
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Channel can be in 3 states: busy, idle, contention period where multiple stations attempt capturing channel. Assumptions Collisions can be detected and resolved in 2tprop
Time slotted in 2tprop slots during contention periods Assume n busy stations, and each may transmit with probability p in each contention time slot Once the contention period is over (a station successfully occupies the channel), it takes X seconds for a frame to be transmitted It takes tprop before the next contention period starts.
CSMA-CD Model
(a)
Busy
Contention
Busy
Idle
Contention
Busy
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Time
44
Contention Resolution
How long does it take to resolve contention? Contention is resolved (success) if exactly 1 station (how to identify this 1 station?) transmits (& so n-1 stations do not is when n=1) in a slot:
To find max. achievable throughput, assume that stations use the value of p that maximizes P success . By taking derivative of Psuccess we find max occurs at p=1/n 1 1 1 1
Psuccess = np(1 p ) n 1
max success
= n (1 ) n n
n 1
= (1 ) n
n 1
a On average, 1/Pmx = e = 2.718 time slots to resolve contention
Average Contention Period = 2t prop e seconds

CSMA/CD Throughput
Busy Contention Busy Contention Busy Contention Busy
At maximum throughput, systems alternates between contention periods and frame Time transmission times
max
X 1 1 = = = X + t prop + 2et prop 1 + ( 2e + 1) a 1 + ( 2e + 1) Rd / L
where:
R bits/sec, L bits/frame, X=L/R seconds/frame a = tprop /X If a is much smaller (say 0.01), higher meters/sec. speed of light in medium (ie.,94%) throughput is d meters is diameter of system achievable. 2e+1 = 6.44
CSMA-CD Application: Ethernet

First Ethernet LAN standard used CSMACD
1-persistent Carrier Sensing R = 10 Mbps tprop = 51.2 microseconds
512 bits = 64 byte slot accommodates 2.5 km + 4 repeaters
Truncated Binary Exponential Backoff

After nth collision, select backoff from {0, 1,, 2k 1}, where k=min(n, 10)
Throughput for Random Access MACs

1 0.8
CSMA/CD 1-P CSMA Non-P CSMA
mx a
0.6
Slotted ALOHA
0.4
ALOHA
0.2 0 0.01 0.1 1
For small a: CSMA-CD has best throughput For larger a: Aloha & slotted Aloha better throughput
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Carrier Sensing and Priority Transmission

Certain applications require faster response than others, e.g. ACK messages Impose different interframe times
High priority traffic sense channel for time
1 1
Low priority traffic sense channel for time 2>
High priority traffic, if present, seizes channel first
This priority mechanism is used in IEEE 802.11 wireless LAN
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Medium Access Control Protocols and Local Area Networks Scheduling
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Scheduling for Medium Access Control

Schedule frame transmissions to avoid collision in shared medium
More efficient channel utilization Less variability in delays Can provide fairness to stations Increased computational or procedural complexity
Two main approaches

Reservation Polling
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51
Reservations Systems
Centralized systems: A central controller accepts requests from stations and issues grants to transmit
Frequency Division Duplex (FDD): Separate frequency bands for uplink & downlink Time-Division Duplex (TDD): Uplink & downlink time-share the same channel
Distributed systems: Stations implement a decentralized algorithm to determine transmission order
Central Controller
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52
Reservation Systems
Reservation interval Frame transmissions
d Cycle n
d Cycle (n + 1)
Time
1 2
Transmissions organized into cycles Cycle: reservation interval + frame transmissions Reservation interval has a minislot for each station to request reservations for frame transmissions
Centralized or distributed system
Reservation System Options
Centralized systems: A central controller listens to reservation information, decides order of transmission, issues grants Distributed systems: Each station determines its slot for transmission from the reservation information
Single or Multiple Frames

Single frame reservation: Only one frame transmission can be reserved within a reservation cycle Multiple frame reservation: More than one frame transmission can be reserved within a frame
Channelized or Random Access Reservations

Channelized (typically TDMA) reservation: Reservation messages from different stations are multiplexed without any risk of collision Random access reservation: Each station transmits its reservation message randomly until the message goes through
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Example
Initially stations 3 & 5 have reservations to transmit frames
(a) r 3 5 r 3 5 r 3 5 8 r 3 5 8 r 3 t
Station 8 becomes active and makes reservation Cycle now also includes frame transmissions from station 8
(b) 8 r 3 5 r 3 5 r 3 5 8 r 3 5 8 r 3
t
55
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Efficiency of Reservation Systems

Assume minislot duration = vX TDM single frame reservation scheme
If propagation delay is negligible, a single frame transmission requires (1+v)X seconds Link is fully loaded when all stations transmit, maximum efficiency is:
MX 1 max = = Mv + MX 1 + v TDM k frame reservation scheme

If k frame transmissions can be reserved with a reservation message and if there are M stations, as many as Mk frames can be transmitted in XM(k+v) seconds Maximum efficiency is:
max
MkX 1 = = Mv + MkX 1 + v k
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Random Access Reservation Systems

Large number of light traffic stations Slotted ALOHA reservation scheme
Stations use slotted Aloha on reservation minislots On average, each reservation takes at least e minislot attempts Effective time required for the reservation is 2.71vX Dedicating a minislot to each station is inefficient
max =
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1 X = X(1+ev) 1 + 2.71v
57
Example: GPRS
General Packet Radio Service
Packet data service in GSM cellular radio GPRS devices, e.g. cellphones or laptops, send packet data over radio and then to Internet Slotted Aloha MAC used for reservations Single & multi-slot reservations supported
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Reservation Systems and Quality of Service

Different applications; different requirements
Immediate transfer for ACK frames Low-delay transfer & steady bandwidth for voice High-bandwidth for Web transfers
Reservation provide direct means for QoS

Stations makes requests per frame Stations can request for persistent transmission access Centralized controller issues grants
Preferred approach
Decentralized protocol allows stations to determine grants

Protocol must deal with error conditions when requests or grants are lost
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Polling Systems
Centralized polling systems: A central controller transmits polling messages to stations according to a certain order Distributed polling systems: A permit for frame transmission is passed from station to station according to a certain order A signaling procedure exists for setting up order
Central Controller
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Polling System Options

Service Limits: How much is a station allowed to transmit per poll?
Exhaustive: until stations data buffer is empty (including new frame arrivals) Gated: all data in buffer when poll arrives Frame-Limited: one frame per poll Time-Limited: up to some maximum time
Priority mechanisms
More bandwidth & lower delay for stations that appear multiple times in the polling list Issue polls for stations with message of priority k or higher
Assume polling order is round robin Time is wasted polling stations
Walk Time & Cycle Time
Time to prepare & send polling message Time for station to respond
Walk time: from when a station completes transmission to when next station begins transmission Cycle time is between consecutive polls of a station Overhead/cycle = total walk time/cycle time
Polling messages
1 2 3 4 5
Frame transmissions Cycle Time

Average Cycle Time

t
1
t
2
t
3
t t
4 5
Tc
Assume walk times all equal to t Exhaustive Service: stations empty their buffers Cycle time = Mt + time to empty M station buffers /M be frame arrival rate at a station NC average number of frames transmitted from a station Time to empty one station buffer:
Tstation
Tc = N c X = ( Tc ) X = M M
= X
Average Cycle Time:
Tc = Mt + MTstation
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Mt = Mt + Tc Tc = 1
63
Exhaustive Service
Efficiency of Polling Systems
Cycle time increases as traffic increases, so delays become very large Walk time per cycle becomes negligible compared to cycle time:
Limited Service
MX Mt Efficiency = = Tc
Can approach 100%
Many applications cannot tolerate extremely long delays Time or transmissions per station are limited This limits the cycle time and hence delay Efficiency of 100% is not possible
MX 1 Efficiency = = MX + Mt 1 + t / X
Single frame per poll

64
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Application: Token-Passing Rings

token
Free Token = Poll

Frame Delimiter is Token Free = 01111110 Busy = 01111111
Listen mode Input from ring Output to ring
Transmit mode
Delay
Delay From device To device Ready station inserts its frames Reinserts free token when done
Ready station looks for free token Flips bit to change free token to busy
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Methods of Token Reinsertion

Ring latency: number of bits that can be simultaneously in transit on ring Multi-token operation
Free token transmitted immediately after last bit of data frame
Busy token Free token Frame Idle Fill
Single-token operation
Free token inserted after last bit of the busy token is received back Transmission time at least ring latency If frame is longer than ring latency, equivalent to multi-token operation
Single-Frame operation
Free token inserted after transmitting station has received last bit of its frame Equivalent to attaching trailer equal to ring latency
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Definition
Token Ring Throughput
: ring latency (time required for bit to circulate ring) X: maximum frame transmission time allowed per station
Multi-token operation
Assume network is fully loaded, and all M stations transmit for X seconds upon the reception of a free token This is a polling system with limited service time:
max
MX 1 1 = = = + MX 1 + / MX 1 + a / M
a = is the normalized ring latency X

Token Ring Throughput

Single-frame operation
Effective frame transmission time is maximum of X and , therefore
max =
MX
+ M max{(X, }
1 max{1, a} + a/M
Single-token operation
Effective frame transmission time is X+ ,therefore
max =
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MX 1 = + M(X+ 1+a(1 + 1/M) )
68
1.2 1
Token Reinsertion Efficiency Comparison

M = 50 M = 10 M = 50 M = 10 Multiple token operation
Maximum throughput
0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2
Single frame 0 operation 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2 2.4 2.8 3.2 3.6 4 4.4 4.8
Single token operation
a <<1, any token reinsertion strategy acceptable a 1, single token reinsertion strategy acceptable a >1, multitoken reinsertion strategy necessary
Application Examples
Single-frame reinsertion
IEEE 802.5 Token Ring LAN @ 4 Mbps
Single token reinsertion

IBM Token Ring @ 4 Mbps
Multitoken reinsertion
IEEE 802.5 and IBM Ring LANs @ 16 Mbps FDDI Ring @ 50 Mbps
All of these LANs incorporate token priority mechanisms

Comparison of MAC approaches

Aloha & Slotted Aloha
Simple & quick transfer at very low load Accommodates large number of low-traffic bursty users Highly variable delay at moderate loads Efficiency does not depend on a
CSMA-CD
Quick transfer and high efficiency for low delay-bandwidth product Can accommodate large number of bursty users Variable and unpredictable delay
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Comparison of MAC approaches

Reservation
On-demand transmission of bursty or steady streams Accommodates large number of low-traffic users with slotted Aloha reservations Can incorporate QoS Handles large delay-bandwidth product via delayed grants
Polling
Generalization of time-division multiplexing Provides fairness through regular access opportunities Can provide bounds on access delay Performance deteriorates with large delay-bandwidth product
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Scheduling & Random Access - New

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Communication Networks

Shared media basis for broadcast networks

Medium Access Control Protocols

Key issue: How to share the medium?

Shared multiple access medium

ECE C394 Communication Networks Topic 7: ALOHA, Polling, Random Access

Approaches to Media Sharing

Partition medium Dedicated allocation to users Satellite transmission Cellular Telephone

Loose coordination Send, wait, retry if necessary Aloha Ethernet

ECE C394 Communication Networks Topic 7: ALOHA, Polling, Random Access

Data from 1 from 2 Data Poll 1 Poll 2 1 2

Station that holds token transmits into ring

Transmit when ready Transmissions can occur; need retransmission strategy

ECE C394 Communication Networks Topic 7: ALOHA, Polling, Random Access

ECE C394 Communication Networks Topic 7: ALOHA, Polling, Random Access

Selecting a Medium Access Control

Delay-bandwidth product key parameter

Simple two-station example

ECE C394 Communication Networks Topic 7: ALOHA, Polling, Random Access

Two-Station MAC Example

Distance d meters tprop = d / seconds A B

ECE C394 Communication Networks Topic 7: ALOHA, Polling, Random Access

Efficiency requiresTwo-Station Example of 2t of quiet time Each frame transmission

MaxThrough put = Reff

Propagation delay Time to transmit a frame

ECE C394 Communication Networks Topic 7: ALOHA, Polling, Random Access

Summary of Two Stations example

ECE C394 Communication Networks Topic 7: ALOHA, Polling, Random Access

Typical MAC Efficiencies

Typical Delay-Bandwidth Products

MAC protocol features

MAC Delay Performance

ECE C394 Communication Networks Topic 7: ALOHA, Polling, Random Access

Normalized Delay versus Load

ECE C394 Communication Networks Topic 7: ALOHA, Polling, Random Access

Delay Performance of Channelization Schemes

ECE C394 Communication Networks Topic 7: ALOHA, Polling, Random Access

ECE C394 Communication Networks Topic 7: ALOHA, Polling, Random Access

Performance Issues in Statistical Multiplexing & Multiple Access

ECE C394 Communication Networks Topic 7: ALOHA, Polling, Random Access

M/G/1 Queueing Model for Statistical Multiplexer

General service time X

Frame Length Model

We will use M/G/1 model as baseline for MAC performance

M/G/1 Performance Results

Average Total Delay: E[T ] = E[W ] + E[ X ] Example: M/D/1

M/G/1 Vacation Model

2 X E[V 2 ] E[W ] = (1 + ) E[ X ] + 2 2(1 ) E[ X ] 2 E[V ]

Extra delay term

Performance of FDMA & CDMA Channelization Bursty Traffic

R/M R/M Channelized Medium

ECE C394 Communication Networks Topic 7: ALOHA, Polling, Random Access

Transfer Delay for FDMA and CDMA

V MX E[WFDMA ] = MX + = MX + 2(1 ) 2 2(1 ) 2

MX E[TFDMA ] = E[TFDMA ] + MX = MX + + MX 2(1 ) 2

Transfer Delay of TDMA & CDMA

FDMA & TDMA have same waiting time

Our frame arrives and finds two frames in queue

Last TDMA frame finishes sooner Our frame finishes transmission

0 1 First frame transmitted

3 4 Second frame transmitted