BASIC ENGINEERING II

Part A ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Electrical machines Definition of mmf, flux and reluctance, leakage flux, fringing, magnetic materials and B-H relationship. Problems involving simple magnetic circuits. Faradays laws, induced emfs and inductances, brief idea on Hysteresis and eddy currents. Working principle, construction and applications of DC machines and AC machines (1-phase transformers, 3-phase induction motors, single phase induction motors split phase, capacitor start and capacitor start & run motors).

AC Ci it

C i

it t , O l , Ki ff l . Average and RMS val es,

ncept

f phasor representation. RLC serious circuits and series resonance. C AC circuits). Introduction

RLC parallel circuits (includes si ple problems in to three phase system

types of connection, relationship bet een line and phase

values. (qualitative treatment only).

Wiring & lighting Types of wiring, wiring accessories, staircase & corridor wiring, Working and characteristics of incandescent, fluorescent, SV & MV lamps. Basic principles of earthing, simple layout of generation , transmission & distribution of power. TEXT BOOKS
1. Muthusubramanian R, Salaivahanan S, Muraleedharan K A, Basic Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering, Tata McGraw Hill, 1999 2. Mehta V K, Principles of Electronics, S Chand & Co, 1980

MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
Introduction A substance, which when suspended freely, points in the direction of north and south is called a MAGNET. Magnet attracts iron fillings. It is also called as permanent magnet. A current passing though a conductor also can produce magnetic effect and it is called as Electromagnet. A permanent magnet has one north pole and one south pole. The imaginary lines which travel from north pole to south pole outside the magnet are called magnetic lines of force. They are drawn by plotting successive directions pointed out by a small compass needle in the magnetic field. Magnetic lines of forces are shown in Fig. 1 and they pass through the magnet.

Fig. 1 Magnetic lines of forces

Fl x, e

Force

el ctance agnetic fiel is called Fl x. Its . nit is

agnetic lines of force in the Wb = 0 8

Weber(Wb).

agnetic lines. Fl x is denoted by

agnetic fl x er

nit cross sectional area is called Fl x density and it is ex ressed in Weber / etre2. Fl x density is denoted by B. agneto oti e Force (mmf) is the source of roducing flux in the magnetic

circuit. It can be ex lained through lectromagnet. When a current of I ampere is passed through a coil of turns, results in a mmf of I . his I ampere turns is called the mmf and its unit is ampere turns (AT).

Reluctance is the property of ma netic circuit that opposes the setting of flux. Reluctance, S =
mmf flux

Its unit is ampere turns / weber. he following table shows the similarities between ma netic and electric circuits. Sl. No. 1 3 4 Ma netic circuit Ma netic flux, webers Electric circuit Electric current, I ampere EMF, E volts Resistance, R ohm Current =
emf resistance

Ma neto motive force, AT Reluctance, S AT / Wb =

mmf reluctance

Leakage flux and Fringing effect The flux which do not follow the desired path in a magnetic circuit is known as leakage flux. Usually we assume that all the flux lines take path of the magnetic medium. But, practically, some flux lines do not confine to the specified medium. It is because, to prevent the leakage flux, there is no perfect magnetic insulator. Some flux lines can pass through air also. All the magnetic flux which complete the desired magnetic circuit are the useful flux. To account for the leakage flux, leakage coefficient is introduced. Leakage coefficient, denoted by Leakage coefficient, is defined as follows. total flux = ! useful flux 
'

Usually, leakage factor is greater than unity.

An air gap is often introduced in the magnetic circuit out of necessit . his is because the magnetic lines of force repel each other It is sho n in Fig. hen the

hen are

crossing an air gap, the magnetic lines of force have a tendenc to bulge out. passing through non magnetic material. his phenomenon is kno n as fringing.

S
Area at iron path Area at air gap path Fig. Fringing effect

Fringing effect increases the effective area of cross section of the air gap and as a result the flux densit in the air gap is reduced.

Probl m involving impl m gn ti

ircuit some

B fore doing problem involving m gnetic circuit it i necessary to no more terms associated ith the magnetic circuit.

Magnetic field intensity, (also called as Magnetizing force) denoted as H, is the mmf per unit length of magnetic flu path. hus, H NI N g . he constant

Flu density is proportional to magnetic field intensity. hus of proportionality is called permeability, . hus B B/H H or

Permeability of vacuum or free space is denoted as 0. Its value is 4 10-7. Permeability of any other medium is given by 0 r here r is called the relative permeability of the medium.

An expression for Reluctance, S can be obtained as follo s. !

N ! a

N
r

ince

N N

e et

N
a
r

Permeance, P is the reciprocal of Reluctance. An iron core coil ith a small air gap is sho n in Fig. 3. I

Coil has n turns. Current through coil

I I Rm ith
Rm R
g
m

Mean radius of magnetic path Cross section of core is circular diameter d Length of air gap

Fig. 3 Iron core coil

Exampl r i al air lux density. olution Given = 2000 turns;

m

il

2000

as a mean radi s

25 m.

e diameter ) lux and c)

each turn is 6 cm. I the current in the coil is 0 , ind a)

= 25 cm; d = 6 cm; I = 0 .

a) = ) lux =

I = 2000 x 0 = 20000 / eluctance =

eluctance, =2

N
a
0 r

; ince it is air core = r = r2 = x 0.0

2

x 0.25 = .5708 m; a = =

= 0.002827 m2 /

eluctance,

.5708 ! 4.42 7 x 0 8 7 0.002827 x 4 x 0

c) lux density,

4.5231x 10 5 ! = = 0.016 a 0.002827

lux,

20000 . 217 x

= 4.5231 x 10-5

/ m2

Exampl Th flux produ th ro d in th air gap b t nt o l tro magn ti pol i 5 Wb If

tional ar a of th air gap i

m 2 find (a) flux d n ity (b) magn ti of th air gap Find al o th mmf 2 m

fi ld int n ity ( ) r lu tan

and (d) p rm an

dropp d in th air gap, giv n th l ngth of air gap to b Solution Giv n Flux, = 5 Wb a= 5 ! 2 2 m 2;
g

2m

(a) Flux d n ity, B =

25 Wb m 2 al ulat d ith r from H = ! NI or N

(b) D p nding on th data H an b H= ;

agn ti fi ld int n ity, H = ,S= ,P=

g

0.25 ! 1.9894 x 10 5 A / 7 4 x 10 6x
4

( ) R lu tan (d) P rm an F=H

N g a
S
0

0.012 0.2 x 4 x
6
!

7

! . 9

AT /
AT

= 1. 8 4 x 10 5 x 0.012 = 2.3873 x 10 3 AT

Exa ri a

le 3 as . 1 ir ea r ia eter 1 c , a cr ss secti i r l .1 ti it 1 t at t ere is 1. c t r s a a as a ra ial ire a

c t i it. It is

i s late etic leaka e.

a c rre t

ces a l x t e ass

acr ss t e a .

alc late t e relative

er ea ility S l ti ive

=1 c = .1

a = 1. c

= .

=1

t r s I=1

Gi en

= 15 cm; a = 1.7 cm 2; = 0.1 mWb

= 0.5 mm;

= 1500 turns; I = 1 ;

F produced = 1500 Total reluctance = Total reluctance =

1 = 1500 T = 1500 / 0.0001 = 1500 10 4 T / Wb

F / Flu

eluctance of air gap + eluctance of iron path N g

a 0.0005 1.7 10  4 4

eluctance of air gap =

!
0

10 7

! 2.3405

10 6 T / Wb

eluctance of iron path = 15 ength of iron path = Thus 12. 595 10 = 15 N

10 10 -2

2. 405 0.05

10 = 12. 595 10-2 = 47.0739

10 10-2 m

T / Wb

47.0739 10 2 ! 1.7 10  4 4 10 7

2203.5423 10 !
r r

Thus

= 2203.5423 / 12. 595 = 174.0 23

E ample 4 series magnetic circuit as an iron pat of lengt 50 cm and an air gap of 1mm. e cross section of t e iron is . cm2 and t e exciting coil as 400 turns. e etermine t e current required to produce a flux of 0.9 mW in t e circuit.

following points are taken from t e magnetization curve for t e iron. lux density (W / m2): Magnetizing force ( olution iven
i

1.2

1.35

1.45

1.55

/ m):

500 1000 2000 4000

= 0.5 m;

g=

1 x 10-3 m; a = . N g a
0

x 10 -4 m2;

= 400;

lux = 0.9 mW /W

eluctance of air gap =

1 x 10-3 ! ! 1.1949 x 10 6 4 7 6.66 x 10 x 4 x 10

equired air gap mmf = 0.9 x 10 -3 x 1.1949 x 10 6 = 1075.4 lux density in t e iron pat = 0.9x 10 -3 / (6.66 x 10 -4) = 1.3514 W / m 2 rom t e given data, corresponding value of = 1000 (1000 x 0.0014 / 0.1) = 1014 /m

equired iron pat mmf = 1014 x 0.5 = 507 otal mmf required = 1075.4 507 = 1582.4

urrent required = 1582.4 / 400 = 3.956

Example 5 n iron rod of 1 cm radius is bent to a ring of mean diameter 3 cm and wound with 5 turns of wire. useful flux of Solution Given r = 1 cm; D m= .3 m; N = 5 ; r = Flux = 0000 / (108) = 0.2 mWb ;
g

ssume the relative permeabilit of iron as

n air gap

of .1 cm is cut across the bent ring. Calculate the current required to produce a lines if (a leakage is neglected and (b) leakage factor is 1.1.

= .001 m

Leakage i neglected rea of cross section, a = Reluctance of air gap = x 10-4 = 0.0003142 m2 !
0

x 10 7

Required air gap mmf = 0.0002 x 2.532 x 106 = 506.54 T Length of iron path = ( x 0.3) 0.001 = 0.9415 m

Reluctance of iron path =

0.9415 ! 2.9 0 x 10 6  0.0003142 x 4 x 10 x 00

N g

0.001 0.0003142 x 4

! 2.5327 x 10

/ Wb

Required iron pat Total

f = 0.0002 x 2. 807 x 06 = 596. = 02.68 AT

AT

f required = 506.5 + 596. 02.68 / 250 = .

Current required = L g ctor i 1.1

07 A

As in previous case, required air gap To aintain useful flux of 0.2

f = 0.0002 x 2.5327 x 06 = 506.5 AT

Wb in t e air gap, Wb

flux required in t e iron pat = . x 0.2 = 0.22 Required iron pat Total

f = 0.00022 x 2.9807 x 06 = 655.75 AT 62.29 AT

f required = 506.5 + 655.75 =

Current required =

62.29 / 250 = .6 92 A

Exa e
2

le a
3

etic circ it s 18 c , cr ss secti

2

i .

as t e f ll
1

i e si .2 x 101

s:
2

10 c , al

al area f
2

at

, cr ss secti

area f

at s

3 x 10-

, le

f air a

. aki leaka e a

t e relative c il t i . fri

er ea ility f t e

aterial as 800, fi

t e c rre t i t e 00 t r exciti

esta lis a fl x f 100 x 10-6 Wb i t e air a , e lecti

i .

- Exa

le 6

Solution iven
1 g

10 cm;

18 cm; a1 = 600;

6.25 x 10=4 m2; a2 = a3 = 3 x 10=4 m2

1

= 1mm; r = 800;

= 100 x 10-6

Reluctance of path 1 Reluctance of air gap =

N
a
0

1 x 10 -3 ! ! 1.2 32 x 10 6 6.25 x 10 4 x 4 x 10 

Length of iron path = 10 0.1 = 9.9 cm

N
Reluctance of iron path = a
0 r

0.099 x 10  x x 10  x 00 x 10 AT / b
b

! 0.1

Thus R1 = (1.2 32 + 0.15 6) x 106 = 1.4308 x 106 AT / MMF1 = 100 x 10-6 x 1.4308 x 106 = 143.08 AT

Reluctance of path 2

N
Reluctance of iron path = a
0 r

0.18 3 x 10 x 4 x 10 7 x 800
4

! 0. 968 x 10 6 AT / Wb
Flux in path 1 will di ide equally; Thus flux = 0 x 10 -6 Wb F2 = 0 x 10-6 x 0. 968 x 10 6 = 29.8 AT Since path 2 and path 3 are in parallel, it is required to consider of the . Total F = 1 3.08 + 29.8 = 172.92 AT f for only one

Exciting current required = 172.92 / 600 = 0.2882 A Electrical equi alent of the agnetic circuit considered is shown in Fig. .

0 x 10 Wb 0. 968x 10 AT/Wb
-6 6

-6

0.1 76 x 10 AT/Wb

0 x 10 Wb 0. 968x 106 AT/Wb

-6

172.92 AT 1.2732 x 106 AT/Wb

100 x 10 Wb

Fig.

Electrical equi alent

Hysteresis and eddy current losses

B

ax,

ax

P O S

-H

ax,

-B

ax

Fig. 6 Circuit for B-H curve

Fig. 7 Hysteresis loop

Consider an iron bar

hich can be

agnetized as sho n in Fig. 6. Magnetizing ill follo OM sho n if

force, H can be varied by controlling the current through the coil. Corresponding values of flux density B can be noted. First the B-H curve Fig. 7. o if H is decreased gradually, B ill decrease along M . Even ill not decrease along MO. Instead it

hen H is zero, B has a definite value O . This measures the retentivity of the

implies that even on removing the magnetizing force, H, the iron bar is not getting demagnetized completely. The value of O material.

To demagnetize the iron bar, the magnetizing force has to be applied in the reverse direction. Flux density, B becomes zero at P. The value of H as measured by OP is known as coercive force. If H is further increased, the curve will follow the path PQ. By taking H back from Hmax, a similar curve QRSM is obtained. It is seen that B always lags behind H. This lagging character of B with respect to H is called hysteresis and the complete loop is called hysteresis loop. Different magnetic material will have different hysteresis Fig. 8 shows the hysteresis loop of cast steel and alloyed steel.

Fig. 8 Hysteresis loop of cast steel and alloyed steel

Area of ysteresis loop gives t e ysteresis loss per unit volume of t e material. About 4% addition of Slican to steel give rise to reduction in ysteresis loop area and ence ysteresis loss. enever a conducting material cuts t e magnetic flux (armature core in t e case of rotating machines) an emf is induced in t e core. This emf sets up large current t rough t e solid mass. Such current is known as eddy current. Flow of eddy current results in eddy current loss. The eddy current loss is proportional to s uare of t e t ickness of t e material. This loss can be minimi ed by using a laminated core, w ich offers resistance for t e flow of eddy current. igh

Faraday s Laws of Electroma netic Induction When a current flows in a conductor, ma netic field is produced. he re erse

phenomenon whereby an Electro Moti e Force (EMF) and hence current is produced in an electric circuit by some action of ma netic field, is called electroma netic induction. Consider the setup shown in Fi . 9.
A

A
K

Fi . 9 Static induced emf

When the switch, K is closed from the open position, there will be induced voltage and hence current in coil as indicated by the galvanometer . When the key is opened from the closed position, the current flow will be in the opposite direction. his illustrates the production of static induced emf. onsider the setup shown in Fig. 10.

A Fig. 10 ynamic induced emf

Wh n th

ondu to

AB i

mov d f om th a

top po ition in th

do n

direction, it cut

the magnetic field at right angle. An emf i

induced in the ill

conductor re ulting current flo be current flo The re ult

indicated by the galvanometer. When the

conductor i moved from the bottom po ition in the up ard direction, there in the oppo ite direction. can be

of the above t o experiment

ummed up into t o law ,

nown a Faraday

Law of Electromagnetic Induction.

Fir t Law: Whenever the flux lin ing with a coil change , a tatic emf i induced in it and a uch the emf la t only for the time the change i taking place. R When a moving conductor cut the magnetic field, an emf induced in it which i called a dynamic emf. Second Law: The magnitude of the induced emf i equal to the rate of change of flux linkage.

Induced emf An emf is induced in a coil or conductor whenever there is a change influx linkages. he change in flux linkages can occur in two ways. (i) he coil is stationary and the magnetic field is changing. Resulting induced emf is known as static induced emf. ransformer works on this principle. (ii) he conductor is moved in a stationary magnetic field in such a way that there is change in flux linkage. Resulting induced emf is known as dynamic induced emf. Static induced emf In this case, the coil is held stationary and the magnetic field is varied. induced emf may be self induced or mutually induced. he self enerator works on this principle.

Fig. 9 Static induced emf

Two coils are wound over a magnetic specimen. Coil A is energi ed using a battery. If switch is initially closed, then a steady current of I ampere will flow Wb. Let us assume that the entire flux through the coil A. It produces a flux of

links coils A and B. When the switch is suddenly opened, the current reduces to ero and the flux linking both the coils becomes ero. As per Faradays law, emf is induced in both the coils A and B. Such emfs are known as static induced emfs. Static induced emf can be classified into two categories, namely self induced emf and mutually induced emf.

Se

ce em

If a single coil carries a current, flux will be set up in it. If the current changes, the flux will change. his change in flux will induce an emf in the coil. his kind of emf is known as self induced emf. In other words, self induced emf is the emf induced in a circuit when the ma netic flux linking it changes because of the current changes in the same circuit. he ma nitude of this self induced emf e M t a y ce em d dt

Mutually induced emf is the emf induced in one circuit due to change of flux linking it, the flux being produced by the current in another circuit. eferring to Fig. 9, when a change in current though coil A occurs, we find the flux linking coil changes. ence, an emf is induced in coil and it is called as mutually induced emf.

D namic induced emf

G

S A Fi . 10 D namic induced emf

Consider the experiment set shown in Fi . 10.The magnetic poles, produce a stationar flux densit of B Wb. / m2. Let the conductor length be be dx meters. Area swept b the conductor in dt sec. = Magnetic flux cut b the conductor = B dx m2 dx Wb. meters. The conductor is moved at ri ht angle to he field. Let the distance moved in dt second

Taking the conductor has one turn, corresponding flux linkage, B dx Wb Turn B
dx dt

Rate of change of flux linkage

According to Farada s Law, this is the induced emf, e in the conductor. Thus induced emf, e where B olts dx dt

linear elocit

Let the conductor be mo ed with elocit m / sec. in an inclined direction, making an angle to the direction of field. Then Induced emf, e B sin olts

This is the basic principle of working of a generator.

Force on current carry ng conductor

S A

Fig. 11 Force on current carrying conductor

Consi er the setup shown in Fi . 11. When a current of I ampere f ows in the conductor from A to B it wi experience a force F gi en by F= B I Newton

This re ation is true if the conductor is at right angle to the magnetic field. In case if the conductor is an inclined direction making an angle field, then F= B I sin Newton to the direction of

This is the basic principle of working of a motor.

Self inductance, Self induct nce of a coil, L is the rate of change of flux linkages with respect to the current in it Its unit is enr . Thus =
d = dI d dI

enr

Equation for self inductance onsider a magnetic circuit shown in ig. 2.

ig. 2 Self inductance

Wit

al

tation
NI AT / m N NI )W ./m N

a neti in force, H =

l x en it , B = r H = r ( a netic fl x, = r (

NI )a W . N

l x linka e = N

= r (

I ) a W . T rn N
2 0 r

Self in uctance,

d =N = dI I

( Na /

N2 el ctance

Expression for self induced e f in ter s of self inductance The agnitude of self induced e f, e = N
dI d x dI dt d dt

Thus self induced e f, e = N =L Mutual inductance When t ere are two are

ore coils, t ere will be

utual inductance between any on flux

two coils. If t e two coils are far apart, t en t e t ere will not be any co lin ing bot t e coils and ence utual inductance will be zero.

Consider two air core coils having self inductances L1 and L2 that are closer to each other as shown in Fig. 12. When current passes through coil 1, flux
11

is

produced in coil 1. Onl a part of this flux links with coil 1 and the remaining flux links both the coils 1 and 2. Generall , the flux linking both the coils is useful and it is called mutual flux and represented b leakage flux represented b it is and
22 12 1 21

. The other part of the flux is called

. When the coil 2 carries current, flux produced in and the mutual flux is
12

and leakage flux is are shown in Fig. 13.

. Fluxes

21

12

I1
N 1 N 2

I2

21

Fig. 13 Two coils in proximit

The operation of many u eful devi e phenomenon depend

which utilize

mutual inductance

upon how clo e the coil

are coupled to each other. A

fraction of total flux produced by a coil link both the coil and thi coefficient repre ented by k. The coefficient of coupling depend on the relative po ition of coil

and . Thu , coefficient of coupling, k =

coefficient of coupling i alway . If both the coil are far apart, then k = . to the definition of elf inductance, mutual inductance can be written a = N1 and = N2

the other hand if both the coil are wound over the ame core, then k = . Similar

U ing energy criteria, it can be proved that Then

2

= N1 N2

Thu

= k

L L2

= k2 N

N2

22

I2

= k2 L L2

dI2

d I1

= N1 N2 k

I2

12

21

dI

12

21

22

. It i to be noted that n

Example coil of resistance 150 is placed in a magnetic flux of 0.1 m Wb. The has 500 turns and a galvanometer of 450 resistance is connected in series with it. The coil is moved from the given field to another field of 0.3 m Wb. In 0.1 sec. Find the average induced emf and the average current through the coil. Solution iven Rc = 150 ; t = 0.1 sec. (0.3 x 10 3  0.1x 10 3 d Induced emf, e = N = 500 x = 500 x dt 0.1 x 10-3 = 1.0 Volt
1

= 0.1x 10-3 Wb.; N = 500 turns; Rg = 450 ;

= 0.3x 10-3 Wb.;

Current, I = induced emf / total resistance = 1.0 / (150 + 450) = 0.00166

Example 8 conductor of length 100 cm moves at right angle to a uniform magnetic field of flux density 1.5 b. / m2 with a velocity of 30 m / sec. Calculate the emf induced in it. Find also the value of induced emf when the conductor moves at an angle of 600 to the direction of the magnetic field. Solution Given = 1.0 m; B = 1.5 b. / m2; v = 30 m / sec.; = 600

Induced emf, e = B ith

v = 1.5 x 1.0 x 30 = 45 V v sin = 45 x sin 600 = 38.9 11 V

= 600. Induced emf, e = B

Example 9 A conductor of 10 cm long lies perpendicular to a magnetic field of strength 1000 AT / m., Find the force acting on it when it carries a current of 60 A. Solution Given = 0.1 m; H = 1000 AT / m; I = 60 A
0

Flux density, B = Force, F = B

H=

x 10-7 x 1000 = 0.0012 7 Wb. / m2 Newton

I = 0.0012 7 x 0.1 x 60 = 0.007

Example 10 n air cored toroidal coil has sectional area of 80 turns, a mean length of 30 cm and a crossis reversed in 60 m sec. cm2. Calculate (a) the inductance of the coil and (b) the

average induced emf, if a current of Solution Given N = 80 turns; = 0.3 m; a =

x 10 - m2; dI = 8 ; dt = 60 x 10-3 sec.

Inductance, L = N2 / Reluctance Reluctance, S = / ( a 0) = 0.3 ! 0.477 x 10 9 x 4 x 10 7

5 x 10 

80 2 Inductance, L = ! 0. 825 x 0 3 ! 0. 825 0. 775 x 0 9 Induced e f, e = L 8 dI ! 0. 825 x 0 3 x ! 0.0 3 dt 0x 0 33

Example 11 current of 5 when flowing through a coil of 1000 turns establishes a flux of 0.3 m Wb. Determine the self inductance if the coil. Solution Gi en I = 5 ; N = 1000 turns; = 0.3x 10-3 Wb.;

0.3 x 10 3 d Self inductance, L = ! 1000 x ! 0.0 dI 5

Example 12 A coil has a self inductance of 30 mH. Calculate the emf in the coil w en the current in the coil (a) increases at the rate of 300 A / sec. (b) raises from 0 to 10 A in 0.06 sec. Solution Given L = 30 x 10-3 H (a) Induced emf, e = L
dI ! 30 x 10 3 x 300 ! dt
dI ! d


(b) Induced emf, e = L

Example 13 The number of turns in a coil is 250. When a current of 2 flows in this coil, the flux in the coil is 0.3 m Wb. When this current is reduced to zero in 2 m sec., the voltage induced in another coil is 63.75 V. If the coefficient of coupling between the two coils is 0.75, find the self inductances of the two coils, mutual inductance and the number of turns in the second coil. Solution iven N1 = 250; I1 = 2 k = 0.75 ;
1

= 0.3x 10-3 Wb.; dI1 = 2

; dt1 = 2 m sec; e2 = 63.75 V;

d 0.3 x 10 3 Self inductance, L1 = ! 250 x ! 0.0375 H dI 2

Induced emf in coil 2, e2 = M
d d
1 1

!M

2 2

Thus mutual inductance, M = 63.75 mH


2 2

0.063752 = 0.752 x 0.0375 x

Thus self inductance of coil 2,



Flux

!k

= 0.75 x 0.3x 10-3 Wb = 0.225 x 10-3 Wb

d 2 0.225 x 10 3 lso, e2 = N2 x ! N2 x ! 63.75 dt 2 x 10 3

Thus N2 = 567

Since M = k

= 0. 927 H

Working principle, construction and applications of he dc generator is rotating electrical energy into electrical energy. or water turbine which is called as pri e

enerator echanical tu rbine

achine which converts over.

he generator is usually driven by a stea

he dc generator operates on the principle based on the Faradays Law of electro agnetic induction. agnetic field. ecessary he generator should have (i) agnetic field (ii) he set of conductors capable of carrying current (iii) conductors is called the ar ature. ove ent of conductors in the

agnetic field is produced by field coil.

Fig. 14 Principle of operation of

enerator

The oltage induced in the coil will be as shown in Fig. 1 .

Fig. 1 EMF induced in an armature coil

epending on ho

the

rmature and Field

inding

are connected,

e ha e

different type of dc generator . They are ho n in Fig. 18.

YY
L O L O

G
D

Fig. 18 (a) Serie generator

Fig. 18 (b) Shunt generator

YY
L O

G
A

ZZ

Fig. 18 (c) Short hunt compounded generator

Y Z A ZZ AA YY
L O

A D

Fig. 18 (d) Long hunt compounded generator




G





A D

Application o dc generators Shunt enerators are use in suppl ing nearl constant loa s. The are use for char ing atteries and suppl ing the fiel s of s nchronous machines. Series enerators are use to oosters for a ing volta e to transmission lines

to compensate for the line rop. umulative compound enerators are use for rives volta e suppl . ifferential compound enerators are use in arc el ing. hich require constant c

Working principle, construction and applications of

enerator

Whenever a current carrying conductor is kept in a stationary magnetic field, an electromotive force is produced. This force is exerted on the conductor and hence is moved away from the field. This is the principle used in dc motors. onstruction of dc motor is exactly similar to dc generator. In a dc motor, both the armature and the field windings are connected to a dc supply. Thus, we have current carrying armature conductors placed in a stationary magnetic field. ue to electromagnetic torque exerted on the armature conductors, the armature starts revolving. Thus, electrical energy is converted into mechanical energy in the armature.

When the armature is in motion, we have revolving conductors in a stationary magnetic field. As per Faradays Law of electromagnetic induction, an emf is induced in the armature conductors. As per Lenzs law, this induced emf opposes the voltage applied to the armature. Hence it is called back emf. There will be small voltage drop due to armature resistance. Thus, the applied voltage has to overcome the back emf in addition to supplying the armature voltage drop. The input power is used to produce necessary tor ue for the continuous rotation of the armature. Depending on how the Armature and Field windings are connected, we have different types of dc motors. They are shown in Fig. 19.

Y +

YY + A A M upply olta e AA M

upply olta e AA -

Fi . 19 (a) erie motor

Fi . 19 (a)

unt motor

Y +

YY A

upply olta e AA Fi . 19 (c) ort

unt compoun e motor

Y YY

upply olta e

G
AA Fi . 19 ( ) on unt compoun e motor

Appli ation of dc motors DC series motors are used in electric trains, cranes, hoists, conveyors etc. where high starting torque is required. Shunt motors are used where the speed has to remain constant under loaded condition. Compound motors are used for driving heavy tools for intermittent heavy loads such as rolling mills, printing machines etc.

Wor ing principle, construction and applications of - phase transfor er The transfor er varies or s on the principle of electro a netic induction. In this case a netic flux is produce y ac volta e and hence it

the coils are stationary. The of statically induce e f.

ith respect to ti e. Thus the induce e f co es under the classification

The transfor er is a static apparatus use to transfer electrical ener y fro circuit to another. The t o circuits are na ely ri ary, is ener ize a nitude, frequency and and avefor ut a netically couple . e have a

one

ne of the circuits, volta e

y connecting it to an ac supply at specific volta e avefor . Then utually induce econdary, at the sa e frequency

availa le across the second circuit, na ely ith a esire volta e in i . 20.

a nitude. These aspects are indicate

EMF induced in primary side E 1 = N1

d d

Since same flux is linking bo h he primary and secondary coils EMF induced in primary side E 2 = N2 E 1 N1 ! E 2 N2
d d

Vol age ra io

Since losses in he ransformer are very less E1 I1 = E2 I2 hen the current ratio

I 1 E2 ! ! I 2 E1

2 1

The transformer mainly consists of a good magnetic core and primary and secondary windings. The transformer core is generally laminated and is made out of a good magnetic material such as transformer steel or silicon steel. Such a material has high relati e permeability and low hysteresis loss. There are two types of transformer cores. They are known as Core Type and Shell type. In core type, L shaped stampings as shown in Fig. 21 are used. One core type transformer is shown in Fig. 22.

Fig. 21 L type stampings

Laminate

core of a s ell type transformer is s own in Fi . 23. In t is E type

an I type laminations are use . Fi . 24 s ows a s ell type transformer.

Fi . 23 Laminate core of s ell type transformer

Appli ati

f transf rmers as Step-up transformers an Step- own volta e,

T e transformers are classifie transformers. W en t e secon ar transformer is calle

volta e is more t an t e primar

a step-up transformer. In step- own transformer, t e

secon ar volta e is less t an t e primar volta e. Transformers are use in t e followin applications (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) ower transformers locate enerate volta e to a i Transformers are use t e esire level. Almost all electronic circuits use transformers. otential transformers are use Furnace transformers an applications of transformers. to measure i volta es an current transformers are use to measure i wel in currents. transformers are some special in in ower lants are use to step-up t e

transmission volta e. istri ution circuit to step- own volta es to

Working principle, construction and applications of 3- phase induction motor When a three phase alanced oltage is applied to a three phase alanced

winding, a rotating magnetic field is produced.

his field has a constant

magnitude and rotates in space with a constant speed. If a stationar conductor is placed in this field, an emf will e induced in it. B creating a closed path for the current to flow, an electromagnetic torque can hus the conductor is put in rotation. he important parts of a three phase induction motor are schematicall represented in Fig. 25. Broadl descri ed elow. classified, the are stator and rotor which are e exerted on the conductor.

Stator is t e stationary part of t e motor. The stator core consist of high grade, low loss electrical sheet-steel stampings assembled in t e frame. Slots are provided on t e inner periphery of t e stator to accommodate t e stator conductors. equired numbers of stator conductors are housed in t e slots. These conductors are arranged to form a balanced t ree phase winding. The stator winding may be connected in star or delta. otor is t e rotating part of t e induction motor. The air gap between t e stator and rotor is as minimum as possible. The rotor is also in t e form of slotted cylindrical structure. There are to types of rotors, namely Squirrel Slip-ring or ound rotor. age rotor and

Fig. 26 ho

the con truction of a

uirrel cage rotor.

Fig. 26 Squirrel cage rotor of three pha e induction motor

In thi type, each rotor lot accommodate a rod or bar made of good conducting material. The e rotor bar are hort circuited at both end by mean of end ring made of the ame metal a that of rotor conductor . Thu the rotor circuit form a clo ed path for any current to flo through.

Fig. 2 s ows the rotor of slip-ring induction motor. In this case conductors are housed in rotor slots. hese conductors are connected to form a star connected balanced three phase winding. he rotor is wound to give same number of poles as the stator. he three ends of the rotor winding are connected to the brus es riding over the slip-rings. Slip-rings are s ort circuited at the time of starting. External resistances can be connected to control the speed of the motor. Althoug the wound rotor motor costs more than a squirrel cage motor, it has the features of controlling the torque and the speed.
Starting resistance and speed controller

Fig. 2 Rotor of slip-ring induction motor

A three phase balanced voltage is applied across the three phase balanced stator winding. A rotating magnetic field is produced. This magnetic field completes its path through the stator, the air gap and the rotor. The rotor conductors, which are stationar at the time of starting, are linked b time var ing start magnetic field. Therefore emf is induced in the rotor conductors. Since the rotor circuit forms a closed path, rotor current is circulated. Thus the current carr ing conductors are placed in a rotating magnetic field. Hence an electromotive force is exerted on the rotor conductors and the rotor starts rotating. According to Lenzs law, the nature of the induced current is to oppose the cause producing it. Here the cause is the relative motion between the rotor conductors and the rotating magnetic field. Hence the rotor rotates in the same direction as hat of the rotating magnetic field.

In practice, the rotor speed never equals to the speed of the rotating magnetic field. The difference in the two speeds is called the slip. The current drawn by the stator gets adjusted according to the load on the motor. Three phase induction motors are used in industry for very many purposes. They are used in lathes, drilling machines, agricultural and industrial pumps, compressors and industrial drives. They are also used in lifts, crane and conveyors.

Working principle, construction and applications of single phase induction Single phase induction self starting.

otor

otors are used in variety of applications at ho e, otor is not inding, otor self ade to ain ake it self -starting. his his kind of

factory, office and business establish ents. Single phase induction dditional arrange ent has to be indings, could be achieved by using t o split-phase starting.

inding and starting ake s the

ith large phase difference bet een the currents carried by the . otor produces a revolving flux and hence otors are classified into otor otor otor epending on the circuit ele ent connected in series

ith the starting

inding, the split-phase (i) (ii) (iii)

esistance-start induction apacitance-start induction apacitance-start-and-run

Resi tance-start induction

otor
I Main winding

Starting winding Single phase a.c. supply Is

otor

i . 28 esistance start induction

otor

Resistance start induction motor is shown in ig. 28. he starting winding has a high resistance connecte in series with it. he current flowing through it is given Is. he centrifugal switch S isconnects the starting winding when the motor he main winding has low resistance and urrent in starting winding is Is. he spee reaches 80% of full loa spee . torque evelope

high reactance and it carries current Im.

the motor is proportional to sin where is the angle shoul be as is the power factor angle.
V Is

etween Im and Is as shown in ig. 29. or obtaining high torque, high as possible. Here

I ig. 29 Phasor iagram of Resistance start induction motor

Im

Ca acit r-start i ducti

t r

In the capacitor-start induction motor, a capacitor is connected in series with the starting winding as shown in Fig. 30.
Im Main winding

Starting winding Single phase a.c. suppl Is C Rotor

Fig. 30 Capacitor start-induction motor Is V I

Im Fig. 31 Phasor diagram of capacitor-start induction motor

The phasor diagram of capacitor-start induction motor is shown in Fig. 31. The following are the advantages of capacitor-start induction motor (i) (ii) Increase in starting torque etter starting power factor

Ca acitor-start-a d- run motor Capacitor-start-and-run motor is similar to that of the capacitor-start motor except that the capacitor in the starting winding circuit remains there through out the operation of the motor. The advantages of this t pe of motor are (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) Low noise in the motor while running igher power factor igher efficienc Improved over-load capacit

ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

Electric circuits are broadl for electric circuits.

classified as Direct Current (D.C.) circuits and he following are the various ele ents that

Alternating Current (A.C.) circuits.

D.C. Circuits
Ele ents oltage source Representation +

A.C. Circuits
Ele ents oltage source Representation ~ +

Current source

Current source

Resistor

Resistor

Inductor

Capacitor

First we shall discuss about the anal sis of DC circuit. The voltage across an element is denoted as E or V. The current through the element is I. Conductor is used to carr current. When a voltage is applied across a conductor, current flows through the conductor. If the applied voltage is increased, the current also increases. The voltage current relationship is shown in Fig. 1.

V
Fig. 1 Voltage current relationship

It is seen that I g V. Thus we can write I=GV where G is called the conductance of the conductor. (1)

Very often we are more interested on RESISTANCE, R of the conductor, than the conductance of the conductor. Resistance is the opposing property of the conductor and it is the reciprocal of the conductance, Thus R= or = (2)

Therefore I=
V R

(3)

The above relationship is known as OHMs law. Thus Ohm law can be stated as the current flows through a conductor is the ratio of the voltage acro ss the conductor and its resistance. Ohms law can also be written as V=RI R=
V I

(4) (5)

The resistance of a conductor is directl conductor. Thus R= where

N

proportional to its length, inversel

proportional to its area of cross section. It also depends on the material of the

(6)

is called the specific resistance of the material b which the conductor is the

made of. The unit of the resistance is Ohm and is represented as . Resistance of a conductor depends on the temperature also. The power consumed b resistor is given b P=VI ( )

hen the voltage is in volt and the current is in ampere, power will be in watt. lternate expression for power consumed b the resistors are given below. P = R I x I = I2 R P=Vx = (8) (9)

KI

FFs

WS he first one is calle Kirchhoffs current law, . Kirchhoffs current law

here are two Kirchhoffs laws. K

and the second one is Kirchhoffs voltage law, K

eals with the element currents meeting at a junction, which is a meeting point of two are more elements. Kirchhoffs voltage law eals with element voltages in a close loop also calle as close circuit.

irchhoff current law irchhoff current law tate that the algebraic um of element current meeting at a junction i zero. Con ider a junction P wherein four element , carrying current I1, I2, I and I4, are meeting a hown in Fig. 2. I I2 P I4
Fig. 2 Current meeting at a junction

I1

Note that current I1 and I4 are flowing out from the junction while the current I2 and I are flowing into the junction. According to CL, I1 I2 - I + I4 = (10)

The abo e equation can be rearranged a I1 + I4 = I2 + I From equation (11), CL can al o tated a at a junction, the (11) um of element

current that flow out i equal to the um of element current that flow in.

irchhoffs voltage law irchhoffs voltage law states that the algebraic sum of element voltages around a closed loop is zero. Consider a closed loop in a circuit wherein four elements with voltages V1, V2, V3 and V4, are present as shown in Fig. 3. + V4 + + V3 Fig. 3 Voltages in a closed loop

V1

V2 +

Assigning positive sign for voltage drop and negative sign for voltage rise, when the loop is traced in clockwise direction, according to V1 - V2 - V3 + V4 = 0 The above equation can be rearranged as V1 + V4 = V2 + V3 From equation (13), (13) VL can also stated as, in a closed loop, the sum of voltage VL (12)

drops is equal to the sum of voltage rises in that loop.

Resistors connecte in series Two resistors are sai to be connecte in series when there is only one common point between them and no other element is connecte and R3 connecte in series as shown in in that common point. Resistors connecte in series carry same current. Consi er three resisters R1, R2 i . 4. With the supply volta e of E, volta es across the three resistors are V1, V2 and V3. R1 + V1 I + R2 V2 E
i . 4 Resistors connecte in series

R3 + V3 -

As per Ohms law V1 = R1 I V2 = R2 I V3 = R3 I (14)

R1 + V1

I +

R2

R As er O ms law + V

V2

V1 V2 V

R1 I R2 I R I

+
i . 4 Resist rs c

E
ecte i series

A E

lyi

KV , 15) 16) i . 4, 17) lta e, I is t e circ it c rre t a Re

q

V1 + V2 + V R1 + R2 + R ) I = Re q I s f r t e circ it s w i

Re q I

w ere E is t e circ it resista ce. ere Re q R1 + R2 + R

is t e eq ivale t

18) m ers f

is is tr e w e tw are m re resist rs are c ecte i series. W e ecte i series, t e eq ivale t resist r is ive y resist rs are c Re q R1 + R2 + . + R

19)

Voltage division rule Consider two resistors connected in series. hen R1 + + V1 = R1 I V2 = R2 I E = (R1 + R2) I and hence I = E / (R1 + R2) otal voltage of E is dropped in two resistors. Voltage across the resistors are given by V1 = R1 E R1 R2 R2 E R R2 and (20) V1 E I + R2 V2 -

V2 =

(2 )

Resistors connected in parallel Two resistors are said to be connected in parallel when both are connected across same pair of nodes. Voltages across resistors connected in parallel will be equal. Consider two resistors R1 and R2 connected in parallel as shown in Fig. 5. I1 A I2 I +
Fig. 5

R1

R2

esistors connected in parallel

As per Ohms law, I1 =

1

(22) I2 =
2

I1

s per I2 I + Appl ing K L at node A I = I1 + I2 = E 1

1

h s law

I1 =
2

E
1

I2 = E

E
2

1
2

) =

Thus for the circuit shown in Fig. 5 I= (24)



Re

where

is the circuit voltage, I is the circuit current and Re ere

resistance.


Req

R2

Re

(23)

is the e uivalent

(25)

1 1 1 !  R eq R1 R 2
From the above R  R2 1 ! 1 R eq R1 R2

(25)

hus R e q !

R1 R2 R1  R 2

(26)

When n numbers of resistors are connected in parallel, generalizing e . (25), R e can be obtained from

Re

R2

 ................ 

Rn

(2 )

Current division rule I1 A I2 I + E R2 R1

Fig. 5 Resistors connected in parallel

Referring to Fig. 5, it is noticed the total current gets divided as I1 and I2. The branch currents are obtained as follows. From eq. (23) E =

R1 R2 I R1  R2

(29)

Substituting the above in eq. (22) I1 =



I


1

(30)

I2 =

I 
2

Exa ple Three resistors 0, 20 and 30 are connected in series across 00 V supply. Find the voltage across each resistor. Solution 0 + V 20 V2 00V + 30 V3 -

I +

Current I = 00 / ( 0 + 20 + 30) =

.6667 A 6.67 V

Voltage across 0 = 0 x .6667 =

Voltage across 20 = 20 x .6667 = 33.33 V Voltage across 30 = 30 x .6667 = 50 V

Example 2 Two resistors of 4 and 6 are connected in parallel. If the suppl current is 30 A, find the current in each resistor. Solution I1 4

I2 30 A

Using the current division rule urrent through 4 = 6 x 30 ! 18 A 46 4 x 30 ! 12 A 46

urrent through 6 =

Example 3 Four resistors of 2 ohms, 3 ohms, 4 ohms and 5 ohms respectively are connected in parallel. What voltage must be applied to the group in order that the total power of 100 W is absorbed? Solution Let
1
T

be the total equivalent resistor. Then

1 1 1 1 60  40  30  24 154    ! ! 2 3 4 5 120 120

esistance

120 ! 0. 154

Let E be the supply voltage. Then total current taken = E / 0. Thus (

E 0. 2 ) 2 x 0. 2 ! 100 and hence E2 = 100 x 0. . 2 ! . 2 2

2 A . 2

2=

equired voltage =

Example 4 W en a resistor is place across a 230 V supply, t e current is 12 A. W at is t e value of t e resistor t at must e place in parallel, to increase t e loa to 16 A

Solution 12 A +

R1 12 A 230 V 16 A 4A +

R1

R2 230 V -

o make t e loa current 16 A, current t rou Value of secon resistor R 2 = 230/4 = 7.

t e secon resistor = 16 12 = 4 A

Example 5 A 50 resistor is in parallel with a 100 resistor. The current in 50 resistor is 7.2 A. What is the value of third resistor to be added in parallel to make the line current as 12.1A? Solution 7.2 A 50

100 E Suppl voltage E = 50 x 7.2 = 360 V Current through 100 = 360/100 = 3.6 A When the line current is 12.1 A, current through third resistor = 12.1 (7.2 = 1.3 A Value of third resistor = 360/1.3 = 276.9230 3.6) -

Example 6 A resistor of 3.6 ohms is connected in series with another of 4.56 ohms. What resistance must be placed across 3.6 ohms, so that the total resistance of the circuit shall be 6 ohms? Solution 3.6 4.56

R1

RT = 6 3.6 Thus R1 = 6 4.56 = 1.44

3.6 x R 1 ! 1.44; 3.6 R 1 Therefore 3.6 R 1 1 ! ! .5; R1 .4 3.6 ! 1.5 R1

Required resistance R1 = 3.6/1.5 = 2.4

Example A resistance R is connected in series with a parallel circuit comprising two resistors 12 and 8 respectively. Total power dissipated in the circuit is 0 W when the applied voltage is 22 V. Calculate the value of the resistor R. Solution 12 R

8 + 22 V -

Total current taken = 0 / 22 = 3.1818 A Equivalent of 12 8 = 96/20 = 4.8

Voltage across parallel combination = 4.8 x 3.1818 = 15.2 26 V Voltage across resistor R = 22 15.2 26 = 6. 2 4 V Value of resistor R = 6. 2 4/3.1818 = 2.1143

Example 8 The resistors 12 and 6 are connected in parallel and this combination is connected in series with a 6.25 resistance and a batter which has an internal resistance of 0.25 . Determine the emf of the batter if the potential difference across 6 resistance is 6 V. 12 6.25 6 Voltage across 6 = 6 V 0.25 E

Solution Current in 6 = 6/6 = 1 A Current in 12 = 6/12 = 0.5 A Therefore current in 25 = 1.0 + 0.5 = 1.5 A Voltage drop in 6.25 and 0.25 put together = 6.5 x 1.5 = 9. 5 V Total voltage drop in resistors = 9. 5 + 6 = 15. 5 V As per KVL, in a closed loop, voltage drop is equal to voltage rise. Therefore batter emf E = 15. 5 V

Example 9 A circuit consist of three resistors 3 resistor of 4 , 4 and 6 in parallel and a fourth is

in series. A batter of 12 V and an internal resistance of 6

connected across the circuit. Find the total current in the circuit and the terminal voltage across the batter . Solution 3

6 6 4 1.4 6 = 24/10 = 2.4 3 = 7.2/ .4 = 1.3333 12 V

Total circuit resistance = 4 + 6 + 1.3333 = 11.3333 Circuit current = 12/11.3333 = 1.0 88 A Voltage drop in internal resistance = 6 x 1.0 88 = 6.3 28 V Terminal voltage across the batter = 12 6.3 28 = .6472 V

Exampl 10 n l CD. tri al n t or i arrang d as sho n. Find i) the urrent in bran h F ii)

the po er absorbed in bran h BE and iii) potential differen e across the branch
13 24 22 1 18 5 14

11

Solution arious stages of reduction are sho n.

13 24 22 1 18 14 14

11

F
13 24 22 1

E B
11

D C

2
18 7

24 V 1

22 18 7

F A
24 V 1 13

E B
18

22 18

A
24 V 1

13

18

22 18

F
13

E B
24 V 22 9

A
24 V 1

22

22

F A
24 V 1 11

Current in branch AF = 24/12 = 2 A fro

F to A

sing current division rule current in 13 in Fig. 4= 1 A eferring Fig. 3, current in branch E = 0.5 A Power absorbed in branch E = 0.52 x 18 = 4.5 W Voltage across E = 0.5 x 18 = 9 V

Current in 11 resistor in Fig. 1 = 9/18 = 0.5 A Voltage across CE in Fig. 1 = 9 11 x 0.5) = 3.5 V eferring Fig. given in the proble , using voltage division rule, voltage across in 5 branch CD = x 3.5 ! 1.25 V 14

Example 11 Using Kirchhoffs laws, find the current in various resistors in the circuit shown.
6 3

25 V

45 V

Solution Let the current supplied b the batteries be I1 and I2

B 6 C 3

I1
25 V

I1-I2
4 45 V

I2
A

I1
2

I1-I2
4 4

I2
A

Using CL, current in 4

resistor = I1 I2 L yields

Considering the loop ABCA, 6 I1 + 4 (I1 I2) = 2 For the loop CDAC, 3 I2 + 4 (I2 I1) = 4 Thus 10 I1 - 4 I2 = 2 - 4 I1 + 7 I2 = 4 L yields

On solving the above I1 = 6. 74 A;

I2 = 10.18 2 A

Current in 4 resistor = I1 I2 = 6. 74 10.18 2 = - 3.6112 A Thus the current in 4 resistor is 3.6112 A from A to C