Submitted By: Krishna Vijaywargiy

A metal is a chemical element that is a good conductor of both electricity and heat and forms cations and ionic bonds with non-metals. Metals are known for their property to form ALLOYS with other metals and achieve improved physical and chemical properties.

An alloy is a homogeneous mixture or metallic solid solution composed of two or more elements. Complete solid solution alloys give single solid phase microstructure, while partial solutions give two or more phases that may or may not be homogeneous in distribution, depending on thermal (heat treatment) history. Alloys usually have different properties from those of the component elements.

Steel is an alloy that consists mostly of iron and has a carbon content between 0.2% and 2.1% by weight, depending on the grade. Carbon is the most common alloying material for iron, but various other alloying elements are used, such

as manganese, chromium, vanadium, and tungsten. Carbon and other elements act as a hardening agent, preventing dislocations in the iron atom crystal lattice from sliding past one another. Varying the amount of alloying elements and the form of their presence in the steel (solute elements, precipitated phase) controls qualities such as the hardness, ductility, and tensile strength of the resulting steel. Steel with increased carbon content can be made harder and stronger than iron, but such steel is also less ductile than iron.

The recipe for steel Here's the recipe for a typical "batch" of molten pig iron. For each ton of molten pig iron, you need: 2600 lbs iron ore or iron ore pellets 1000 lbs coke and a few hundred lbs of flux (slag, calcite, dolomite, limestone, etc).

In some instances, burnt lime(manufactured by heating calcite or dolomite) is substituted. The lime in the stone or burnt lime (when melted in blast furnaces, basic oxygen furnaces, or electric furnaces) combines with the impurities in the ore or hot metal to form slag, which, because it is lighter, floats on top of the molten metal. Take a few minutes and "walk through" the process of steel-making as nicely illustrated in the 12-step diagrams below.

Properties Density (1000 kg/m3) Elastic Modulus (GPa) Poisson's Ratio Thermal Expansion (106/K) Melting Point (C) Thermal Conductivity (W/m-K) Specific Heat (J/kg-K) Electrical Resistivity (109;-m) Tensile Strength (MPa) Yield Strength (MPa) Percent Elongation (%) Hardness (Brinell 3000kg)

Alloy Steels 7.85 190-210 0.27-0.3 9.0-15

Carbon Steels 7.85 190-210 0.27-0.3 11-16.6

Stainless Steels 7.75-8.1 190-210 0.27-0.3 9.0-20.7 1371-1454

Tool Steels 7.72-8.0 190-210 0.27-0.3 9.4-15.1

26-48.6 452-1499 210-1251 758-1882 366-1793 4-31 149-627

24.3-65.2 450-2081 130-1250 276-1882 186-758 10-32 86-388

11.2-36.7 420-500 75.7-1020 515-827 207-552 12-40 137-595

19.9-48.3

640-2000 380-440 5-25 210-620

Alloy steel is steel alloyed with a variety of elements in total amounts of between 1.0% and 50% by weight to improve its mechanical properties. Alloy steels are broken down into two groups: low-alloy steels and high-alloy steels. The difference between the two is somewhat arbitrary from 4% to 8%. The following is a range of improved properties in alloy steels (as compared to carbon steels): strength, hardness, toughness, wear resistance, hardenability, and hot hardness. To achieve some of these improved properties the metal may require heat treating. Commonly alloyants include: Manganese Nickel Chromium Molybdenum Vanadium Silicon Boron Aluminum Cobalt Copper Niobium Titanium Tungsten Tin Zirconium

Element

Percentage

Primary function
Alloying element in nitriding steels Improves machinability A powerful hardenability agent Increases hardenability Increases corrosion resistance Corrosion resistance Improved machinability Combines with sulfur and with phosphorus to reduce the brittleness. Also helps to remove excess oxygen from molten steel. Increases hardenability by lowering transformation points and causing transformations to be sluggish Stable carbides; inhibits grain growth. Increases the toughness of steel, thus making molybdenum a very valuable alloy metal for making the cutting parts of machine tools and also the turbine blades of turbojet engines. Also used in rocket motors.

Aluminium 0.951.30 Bismuth Boron 0.0010.003 0.52 Chromium 418 Copper 0.10.4 Lead 0.250.40 Manganese >1

Molybdenum

0.25

Nickel

Silicon Sulfur Titanium Tungsten Vanadium

25 1220 0.20.7 2.0 Higher percentages 0.080.15 0.15

Tougheness Increases corrosion resistance Increases strength Spring steels Improves magnetic properties Free-machining properties Fixes carbon in inert particles; reduces martensitic hardness in chromium steels Also increases the melting point. Stable carbides; increases strength while retaining ductility; promotes fine grain structure. Increases the toughness at high temperatures

Following are the general steel types which are most extensively produced: Boron Steels Boron is a potent and economical alloying element that markedly increases hardenability when added to a fully deoxidized steel, especially low carbon grades. Additions are small, usually between .005 and .003 percent. It does not affect the strength of ferrite, and therefore does not sacrifice ductility, formability or machinability in the annealed state. Steel Grade Designation: XXBXX.

Carbon Steels Carbon has a dual effect in hardenable alloy steels. It both controls maximum obtainable hardness and contributes substantially to hardenability. It is the least expensive approach to improving hardenability. Plain carbon steels do not have any other commonly used intentional alloy additions. They are generally used for less-critical applications in non-corrosive environments, and are not usually heat treated. Except for spring and bearing steels, more than .60 percent C is seldom used in steels for machined parts. Steel Grade Designation: 10XX, 11XX,15XX

Chromium - Stainless Steel Chromium stainless steels are iron-based alloys that contain at least 10.5 percent Cr. They achieve their stainless characteristics through the formation of the invisible and adherent chromium-rich oxide surface film. Other elements can be added to improve product characteristics. Stainless steels may be selected based on corrosion resistance, fabrication characteristics, availability and mechanical properties in specific temperature ranges. Steel Grade Designation: 4XX

Chromium Steels Chromium is used in low alloy steels to increase hardenability. In addition, it brings resistance to corrosion and oxidation, high temperature strength and abrasion resistance. Straight chromium steels are susceptible to temper embrittlement and can be brittle. Steel Grade Designation: 50XX, 51XX, 50XXX, 51XXX. 52XXX

Chromium-Molybdenum Steels Chromium and molybdenum both individually increase the hardenability of low alloy steel. Important synergistic effects, not yet fully defined, can also occur when Cr and Mo are used in place of single elements. Chromium brings resistance to corrosion and oxidation, high temperature strength and abrasion resistance. Molybdenum helps maintain a specified hardenability and increases high temperature tensile and creep strengths. These grades are generally heattreated to specified properties. Steel Grade Designation: 41XX, PSXX (formerly EX grades)

Chromium-Molybdenum-Vanadium CrMoV steel is a heat resistant steel typically used in applications such as shafts and fasteners used in high temperature service. The chromium is used in this steel to increase resistance to corrosion and oxidation, to impart high temperature strength and to increase the hardenability. The molybdenum addition also imparts higher hardenability and increases high temperature tensile and creep strengths. The vanadium addition inhibits grain growth during heat treating while improving strength and toughness. This steel is referenced in the industry specification AMS 6304.

Chromium-Vanadium Steels Both chromium and vanadium increase the hardenability of steel. Important synergistic effects, not yet fully defined, can also occur when combinations are used in place of single elements. Chromium brings resistance to corrosion and oxidation, high temperature strength and abrasion resistance. Vanadium inhibits grain growth during heat treating while improving toughness of hardened and tempered steels. Steel Grade Designation: 61XX

Manganese Steels Manganese is one of the least expensive means of increasing hardenability at a given carbon content. It can also enhance machinability in the presence of sulfur. Steel Grade Designation: 13XX

Molybdenum Steels Molybdenum increases hardenability and helps maintain a specified hardenability. It also increases high temperature tensile and creep strengths. These grades are generally heat-treated to specified properties. Steel Grade Designation: 40XX, 44XX

Nickel-Chromium Steels Both Ni and Cr increase the hardenability of steel. Chromium brings resistance to corrosion and oxidation, high temperature strength and abrasion resistance. Steels with added nickel offer much greater toughness at a specified carbon level. Steel Grade Designation: 31XX, 32XX, 33XX, 34XX

Nickel-Chromium-Molybdenum Steels Ni, Cr and Mo all increase the hardenability of steel. In general, Ni is the most expensive per unit of increased hardenability, but is warranted when toughness is a primary consideration. Chromium brings resistance to corrosion and oxidation, high temperature strength and abrasion resistance. Molybdenum increases hardenability and helps maintain a specified hardenability. It also increases high temperature tensile and creep strengths. These grades are generally heat treated to specified properties. Steel Grade Designation: 43XX, 43BVXX, 47XX, 81XX, 86XX, 87XX, 88XX, 93XX, 94XX, 97XX, 98XX, PSXX (Formerly EX grades)

Nickel-Molybdenum Steels Both Ni and Mo increase the hardenability of steel. Steels with added nickel offer much greater toughness at a specified carbon level. Mo also increases high temperature tensile and creep strengths. These grades are generally heat treated to specified properties. Steel Grade Designation: 46XX, 48XX

Nitriding Steels These are steels that are specially formulated to undergo a nitriding operation on a machined part. Nitriding consists of heating the part in an atmosphere containing ammonia. A thin, very hard case results from the formation of nitrides. Nitriding grades contain the strong nitride-forming elements aluminum, chromium and molybdenum.

Silicon-Manganese Steels Silicon increases the strength without a serious loss of ductility. It also adds scale resistance. These steels are generally heat treated to specific properties. Manganese is one of the least expensive means of increasing hardenability at a given carbon content. It can also enhance machinability in the presence of sulfur.

Maraging steels This type of steel is known for possessing superior strength and toughness without losing malleability, although they cannot hold a good cutting edge. Aging refers to the extended heat-treatment process. These steels are a special class of low-carbon ultrahigh-strength steels which derive their strength not from carbon, but from precipitation of inter-metallic compounds. The principal alloying element is 15 to 25% nickel. Secondary alloying elements are added to produce intermetallic precipitates, which include cobalt, molybdenum, and titanium. Maraging steel's strength and malleability in the pre-aged stage allows it to be formed into thinner rocket and missile skins than other steels, reducing weight for a given strength. Maraging steels have very stable properties, and, even after over aging due to excessive temperature, only soften slightly. These alloys retain their properties at mildly elevated operating temperatures and have maximum service temperatures of over 400 C (752 F).

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