Microwave Fundamentals

Microwave Fundamentals
Proprietary & Confidential
Slide 1
Microwave Fundamentals Radio Propagation Terminologies. Polarization. Microwave Frequency Bands. Free space Loss. Antenna . Fresnel Zone Modulation Technologies (QAM). SDH,PDH,E1
Slide 2
Radio Propagation
Slide 3
Radio Wave Propagation & Its characteristics a. Radio Wave Propagation & Its Characterstics
i) Definition of Microwave :
Microwaves in a descriptive term used to identify electromagnetic waves in the frequency spectrum ranging approx from 1 GHz to 30GHz. This corresponds to wavelength 30cm to 1 cm. Since the wavelength is small the phase varies rapidly with distance, thus a signal reaching to a point from two different routes may cause constructive or destructive interference. Moreover these frequencies contain two energies (Electric and Magnetic) so also known as ELECTROMAGNATIC WAVES. Propagations of this waves happens in such a way that direction of propagation, Electric field and Magnetic field always remains perpendicular to each other. Microwaves frequencies characteristics are very much similar to light. The same is shown in the figure:
Slide 4
Radio Wave Propagation & Its characteristics

E H P
Depending on the topography and the meteorological conditions, radio waves propagate In different ways causing attenuation to the original wave. Following propagation mechanisms come into play:
ii) Reflection :
When electromagnetic waves incide on a surface they may be reflected depending on the smoothness of the surface. When the surface is smooth and its size is greater than the wavelength of the wave then it is Reflected.
Slide 5

i r Where i = incident angle r = reflected angle
Glazy Surface
iii) Refraction :
Bending of waves when passing through one media to other media of different refractive index is called REFRACTION. Radio waves travel with different velocities in different medium depending on their dielectric constants. The dielectric constant of the atmosphere decrease with altitude. Thus the waves travel slower in the lower part of atmosphere where dielectric constant is greater and faster in the upper part where dielectric constant is lower thus refracting the beam downwards.
Proprietary & Confidential Slide 6

RI1 Medium 1
Where RI1 = Refractive index of medium 1 RI2 = Refractive index of medium 2

RI2
Medium 2
RI1 < RI2
iv) K-Factor & Effective Earth Radius:

In a horizontally homogeneous atmosphere where the vertical change of dielectric constant is gradual, the bending or refraction is continuous, so that the ray is slowly bent away from the thinner density air towards thicker, thus making the beam tend to follow the earths curvature. This bending can be directly related to the radii of spheres. The first sphere being the earth itself (radius =6370 km) and the second
Slide 7

sphere is formed by the curvature of the ray beam with its center coinciding the earths center. The K- Factor thus can be defined as the ratio of the radius, r, of the ray beam curvature to the true earth radius r. i.e. K = r / r, where K is called effective earth radius factor and r is the effective earth radius.
Effective Radio Transmitter Antenna For K = infinity For K = 1 Receiver For K = 0.5 Antenna Optical Line of sight
Effective Earth
Slide 8

v) Scattering :
When Electromagnetic waves incide on a rough surface having rough edges whose dimension is less than the wavelength of the wave, it is scattered in different directions. Scattering is a phenomenon which causes vector distribution of energy as shown in the figure. Incident wave Scattered waves
vi) Absorption :
At frequencies above 10 GHz the propagation of radio waves through the atmosphere of the earth is strongly affected by the resonant absorption of electromagnetic energy by molecular water vapour and oxygen. The amount of water vapour in the atmosphere strongly varies from place to place according to the local meteorological conditions.

vii) Attenuation :
As the EM waves travels it losses its energy, this is due to attenuation. Attenuation is due to presence of other field (Magnetic or Electric), Due to fog, Due to Rain etc.
P1 Attenuation = 10 log (P2/P1) db
P2
Rain Attenuation : Scattering and absorption of the radio wave by raindrops causes attenuation. Although all frequencies are subject to these effects, rain attenuation is of practical importance for frequencies above 10 GHz. Due to the random behaviour of the rain events the same is not included as a contribution to the Link Budget calculation.

viii) Fading :
Fading is defined as any time varying of phase, polarization, and/ or level of a received signal. The most basic propagation mechanism involved in Fading are reflection, refraction, diffraction, scattering, attenuation and guiding(ducting). i. Multi path Fading :
It is a common type of fading encountered in LOS radio links. This type of fading results due to the interference between direct rays and component of ground reflected wave & partial reflection from atmosphere. ii. iii. Fading due to Earth Bulge : Duct & Layer fading : Atmospheric ducts consisting of superrefractive and a
subrefractive layer or vice versa. iv. Surface duct fading on over water path : It is a combination of multi path fading
due to water body and fading due to atmospheric duct.

Effective Earth Multi path fading Atmospheric duct
Effective Earth
Effective Earth Fading due to earth bulge Surface duct
Water Body
Slide 12
Trunk Radio Characteristics

Long distance Therefore lower frequencies Therefore subject to Multipath fading Diversity route compensation Lower frequencies less effected by rain
Slide 13
Wave Propagation in A
No Atmosphere With Atmosphere
The highest index of refraction is near the surface of the earth, the waves are bent towards the ground K-Value is a common used value to indicate ray bending with respect to the physical radius of the earth For a normal atmosphere K value equals 4/3
Slide 14
tmosphere
Slide 15
Multipath
Multipath propagation occurs when there are more then one ray reaching the receiver Multipath transmission is the main cause of fading
Direct beam
Delayed beam
Diffraction
Radio path between transmitter and receiver obstructed by surface with sharp irregular edges Waves bends around the obstacle, even when line of sight does not exist
Slide 17
K Factor onEarth
Slide 18
Fade Margins
Fading depends on atmospheric conditions, path climatic conditions and path terrain (need a path profile)
Rx signal level Rx signal level - rain
Thermal Fade Margin
Flat Fade Margin
Flat fade Margin Rain

Rx Threshold level + interference Rx Threshold level
Effective Fade Margin
Flat Dispersive Fade Fade Margin Margin
RSL
Slide 19
Rain Fading
Rain Outage due to water absorption Increases with frequency
Depends on amount of water in path Rain rate (mm/hr) Depends on rain region How often does that mm/hr occur Rain falls as flattened droplet V better than H
Slide 20
Polarization
i) Electromagnetic Waves & Fields
Energy in EM waves is in form of Electric and Magnetic field. Energy of any MW wave is vector sum of its all-electrical and magnetic components. The concept can be better understood from the following diagrams :
E M P
E16 E1 E15 E14 E13 E12 E11 E10 E9
E2 E3 E4 E5 E6 E7 E8 H11 H10 H9 H8 H7
H12 H13
H14 H15 H16 H1 H2 H3
H6
H5
H4
Slide 21
Polarization
ii) Polarization ( H, V & Circular):
When EM wave contains E and H energies in all direction that is know as circularly Polarized as shown in the last figure. When EM waves has got only electrical component perpendicular to Horizon of earth, is known as Vertical Polarized wave. When EM waves has got electrical component parallel to Horizon of earth, known as Horizontally polarized wave. Vertically polarized wave travels longer distance as compare to horizontally polarized wave.
E H
P=V
P=H
Earth
Microwave Frequency Band
Slide 23
i) Microwave Frequency Bands as per ITU Radio Regulation :

Radio Waves are defined by Radio Regulations of the International telecommunication Union.The radio spectrum allocated for Microwave are UHF,SHF and EHF as mentioned below in the table:
M e tric C o rre s p o n d in gA b b re v ia tio n s fo r F re q u e n c y R a n g e tric S u b d iv is io n th e b a n d Me 4to 4 k H z M yria m e tric w a ve s B . M a m 4 4 to 4 4 H z K ilo m e tric w a ve s 4 4k B . km 4 4 4 4 k H z H e c to m e tric w a ve s 4 to 4 4 B . hm 4to 4 M H z D e c a m e tric w a ve s B . d a m 4 4 to 4 4 H z 4 4M M e tric w a ve s B. m 4 4 4 4 M H z D e c im e tric w a ve s 4 to 4 4 B. dm 4to 4 G H z C e ntim e tric w a ve s 4 B . cm 4 to 4 4 H z M ilim e tric w a ve s 4 4G B. mm 4 4 4 4 G H z e c im ilim e tric w a ve s 4 to 4 4 D
B and N um ber S ym bol 4 V LF 4 LF 4 MF 4 HF 4 V HF 4 UHF 4 4 S HF 4 4 E HF 1 1
Slide 24
ii) Microwave Frequency Band used in Practical Systems :

2, 6 and 7 GHz Frequency Bands are used for Intercity Backbone routes. Nominal Hop Distances 25 40 Km 15,18 and 23 GHz Frequency Bands are used for Access Network Nominal Hop Distance 1 10 Km. : Government will allocate spot Frequency. Index of Radios will be decided by Spot frequency. Channel No will be calculated using allocated spot frequency. To obtain the same applications have to be forwarded to the following government bodies : iii) SACFA (Standing Advisory Committee for Frequency Allocation) It is a government Wing which allocates frequency and also gives tower ht clearance. Before allocation Of frequency it checks not to cause interference to existing users. Before giving tower
height clearance it checks that it should not cause obstruction to exiting MW link, should not be in funnel zone of Aircraft etc. iv) WPC (Wireless Planning Committee) - It is a government wing which takes charges from operator for use of MW frequency pair. Charges are based on the and width used and annual gross revenue.
Slide 26
v) Frequency & Bandwidth :

a) Introduction : The implementation of digital LOS radio links has accelerated due to transition of telephone network to an all digital network. The digital network is based on a PCM waveform, which when compared to analog FDM is wasteful of bandwidth. A nominal 4-kHz voice channel on an FDM baseband system occupies about 4-kHz of bandwidth. On an FDM/FM radiolink, by rough estimation we can say it occupies about 16 kHz. In conventional PCM baseband system, allowing 1 bit per Hz of bandwidth, a 4-KHz voice channel roughly requires 64kHz (64 kbps) of bandwidth. This is derived using Nyquist sampling rate of 8000 / sec (4000 Hz x 2) and each sample is assigned an 8-bit code word, thus 8000 x 8 bits per second or 64 kbps. Thus it is essential to select modulation techniques that are bandwidth conservative.
Slide 27
b) Modulation techniques used : The digital modulation schemes such as FSK, BPSK/QPSk, 8-ary PSK, 4-QAM, 8 QAM and 16-QAM are most commonly used. For eg the table shows comparision of Analog and digital modulation techniques:
Bandwidth Voice Channel Capacity Max Data Capacity E4capacity System Gain 4 4channel FM Analog 4 4 MHz 4 44 4 1. 1 11 Mbps 4 4 4 44dB 4. 4 QAM Digital 4 4 MHz 4 44 4 4 Mbps 4 4 4 4 44dB 4.
c) Bandwidth Requirement : As per the no. of channel requirements the bandwidth of the system can be decided. For example for 4mbps I.e. 60 nos of 64 kbps channels I.e. 4 Mbps , bandwidth of of 3.5MHz is required and so on as mentioned below: 7 MHz for 8 Mbps, 14 MHz for 16 Mbps and so on.
Terminologies
Slide 29
Terminologies
i.Azimuth and Importance of North direction
It is angle of antenna direction w.r.t. north in clockwise direction. This is also known as bearing.
ii.AMSL
Above mean sea level. An antenna at AMSL 20m means it is 20meter higher than the mean sea level.
Slide 30
Terminologies
iii.db, dbm
db=it is logarithmic ratio db = 10 log P1/P2. 3db loss of power is power reduced to half. dbm is the logarithmic ratio of power w.r.t 1. miliwatt 1 mW power in dbm is =10 log 1mW/1mW = 10 log 0 = 0dbm 1 W power in dbm is = 10 log 10W/1mW =30dbm
iv) Antenna Gain and Beam width

Beam width of an antenna is the angle in which antenna radiates energy. Antenna Gain is measured w.r.t. isotropic antenna. An isotropic antenna radiates power in all direction. In practical system the energy needs to be radiated in the desired direction in desired beam width. Thus the total energy confined in the smaller aperture. Unit of antenna gain is dbi. Antenna Gain = 17.6 + 20 * log10 (f *d) dBi Where d= Antennae Diameter in Meter and f= Frequency in GHz
Beam width
Slide 31
Terminologies
v) AGC
AGC stands for Automatic Gain Control. Media between two antennae in MW system is variable thus the path loss. MW system is designed in such a way that it can add or reduces the gain to compensate the variation in path loss. This mechanism is known as AGC system.
vi) Spot frequency

MW system transmits information after modulation on carrier frequency from one point to another. The carrier frequency is known as spot frequency. We need to set a spot frequency in MW system (also known as channel number).
Slide 32
Terminologies
iversity
t is used to improve system performance. There are two types of diversity used. 1. Space Diversity 2. Frequency Diversity F1
F2
Space Diversity
Frequency Diversity
Slide 33
Free Space Propagation
Slide 34
Free Space propagation

i. Free Space Propagation :
As described earlier characteristics of Microwave is very much similar to light waves. Velocity of Microwaves is same as velocity of light waves. Velocity of the light (C) is 3x 108 meter per second. Also we know that C = F * (F=frequency and = wavelength).
As the EM wave travels in free space it looses energy. Free Space transmission loss is the least possible loss between a transmitter and a receiver. The same can be defined by the formula: P loss = 32.4 + 20 log f *d where f is Frequency in MHz and d is Distance in KM
Slide 35
Free Space propagation

ii) Importance of Free Space Loss :
As described free space loss is the loss calculated in space thus it is minimum loss incurred when EM waves travels a distance. Loss when EM waves travels the same distance in other media will be higher than the loss in free space. Exact loss can be calculated by giving other external environmental inputs to planning tool.
Slide 36
Free Space Loss
L fs = 4.4 + 4 log(d f ) 44 4
39 GHz d=1km ---> L = 124 dBm d=2km ---> L = 130 dBm For 39 GHz, L 118 + 6d For 23 GHz, L 120 + 6d
Examples
26 GHz d=1km ---> L = 121 dBm d=2km ---> L = 127 dBm
For 26 GHz, L 115 + 6d For 18 GHz, L 112 + 6d

Slide 37
Antenna Basics
Slide 38
vi) Antenna Design for Microwave Systems :

a) Introduction : Antennas form the link between the guided waves and the free space part of a radio or microwave system. The guided parts are cables or waveguides to and from the transmitter and receiver. b) Purpose of Antennas : The purpose of a transmitting antenna is to efficiently transform the current in a circuit or waveguide into radiated radio or microwave energy. The purpose of a receiving antenna is to efficiently accept the radiated energy and convert it to guided form for detection and processing by a receiver. c) Types of Antenna : Antennas for radio and microwave system falls into two broad categories depending on the degree to which the radiation is confined.
Microwave and satellite communications use pencil beam antennas where the radiation is confined to one narrow beam of energy, whereas Mobile communications and broadcasting use omni directional pattern in the horizontal plane and toroidal pattern in the vertical plane. At microwave frequencies the most common type of pencil beam antenna is a medium to large size reflector antenna. This consists of a reflector, or, mirror which collimates the signal from a feed horn at the focus of the reflector. These are aperture antennas because the basic radiating element is an Aperture.
`
Pencil Beam Reflector Antenna & Feed Horn
Toroidal Beam
d) Size and Gain of Microwave Antenna : The axi-symmetric parabolic reflector with a feed at the focus of the paraboloid is the simplest type of reflector antenna used in microwave application. The paraboloid has the property that energy from the feed horn at the focus F goes to the point P on the surface where it is reflected parallel to the axis to arrive at a point A on the imaginary aperture plane. The equation describing the surface is : r1111 4F( F z ) where F is the focal length. At the Edge of the reflector the relationship between the focal length and the diameter D is given by : F / D = cot ( /2 ) The depth of the paraboloid is specified by its F/D ratio. Common sizes for microwave reflector antennas are between F/D =0.25 which makes = 90, to F/D =0.5 which gives = 53.
P r D F z F
The peak gain of the reflector antenna is calculated as : G = 4 X effective aperture area / 11 = ( D / ) 4 Hence more the gain larger will be the size of the antenna used.
Slide 42
deciBel
G=? Gain is a referenced Value without measurements units Pin Pout
G=
Pout mW = Pin mW
When trying to calculate Pin cascade amplifiers in most cases it will be difficult using the linear way (long numbers and most of the time not round ones).This is the reason for working in decibels. Power measurements units in a logarithmical world is dBm (in reference to 1mW) or dBW (in reference to 1W). G=10Log(Pout/Pin) [dB]
1mW = -30dBW = 0dBm 1W = 0dBW = 30dBm A reminder
Pou 1 = 2 = 3 = 4 = 5 = 6 = 7 = 8 = 9 = 10 = 0 3 4.7 6 7 7.7 8.5 9 9.5 10 dB dB dB dB dB dB dB dB dB dB
Log ( A B ) = LogA + LogB

Slide 43
Antennas Basics
Definition
f = 3.5 GHz = 8.571 cm - The device used to guide RF energy from one point to another one, with minimum attenuation, heat and radiation losses. Guides the energy - The structure associated with the region of transition between a guided wave and a free space wave, or vice versa. Radiates/receives energy
= wavelength = c/f - Transmission line
- Radio antenna
Generator
Transmission line (spacing between wires is only a fraction of the wave length)
Antenna (separation between wires is in the range of one or more wave lengths)
Slide 44
Directivity
- Isotropic antenna (theoretical)
Generator
4 dBm (4 mW) 4 4
The energy fed into the antenna is radiated in the whole space. A receiver RCV, located in the far field of the transmitter, gets the basic element of energy generated by the presence of 17dBm (50mW) in the whole space.
RCV
- Non-isotropic antenna (real)

RCV
Generator
4 dBm (4 mW) 4 4
The energy fed into the antenna is radiated only in part of the space. A receiver RCV, located in the far field of the transmitter, gets the basic element of energy generated by the presence of 17dBm (50mW) in the defined volume, which is equivalent with the presence of much more energy isotropically distributed.
Slide 45
- Non-isotropic antenna (real)

RCV
Generator
4 dBm (4 mW) 4 4
For same amount of energy fed into the antenna, a non-isotropic antenna will transmit its signal over longer distances. Non-isotropic antennas are characterized by their capability to focus the transmitted energy, expressed by the antenna gain Antenna gain = 10 Log Volume (radiation) of subject antenna [dBi] volume (radiation) of isotropic antenna
Generator
4 dBm (4 mW) 4 4
RCV
e.g. - An antenna with 3dBi gain, radiates its energy into 50% of the space. Conclusion - A 3dBi antenna fed with 17dBm behaves (in its active field) as an isotropic antenna fed with 20dBm Even if, in fact, the antenna radiates only 17 dBm, it is said that it radiates 20 dBm EIRP (Equivalent Isotropic Radiated Power)
Slide 46
Radiation Patterns for some antennas

Gain (dBi) Geometry Radiation Pattern Half Power Beam Width (HPBW) Horizontal Vertical 18
18
18
35
2.5
2.5
Slide 47
Antenna Pattern
at 44 4 4 . 4 4 4GHz 4 -4 -4 4 -4 4 -4 4 -4 4 -4 4 -4 4 -4 4 -4 4 -4 4 -1 1 1
-4 4 4
-4 4
4 4
44 4
44 4
Slide 48
Fresnel Zone
A family of ellipsoids that can be constructed between a transmitter and a receiver by joining all the various ways of the destructives electromagnetic waves, in reference to the direct line of transmission.
The circles indicate the geometric place of all the waves that passed the way: d' 4 4 +d'
d'4 d'4
Transmitter
Receiver
d4
d4
Slide 49
Fresnel Zone
The radius of each of the circles in the figure is calculated using the following equation:
nd4 4 d d4 d 4 +
Base Antenna site T erminal Antenna site P ossible obtructor
rn =
rF: 4st Fresnel zone radius
d4 distance from : Terminal: . Km 44
d4distance from Base to obcstacle: . Km 11
Slide 50
Fresnel Zone
L = 20 dB
L = 6 dB
Slide 51
Fresnel Zone Tables
44 . GHz 4 4 44 4 44 4 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44
1 1 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 .
44 4 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 .
44 4 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 .
44 44 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 .
44 44 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44
44 44 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44
44 44 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44
44 44 44 44 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44
44 44 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44
44 44 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44
44 44 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44
44 44 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44
44 44 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44
44 44 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44
44 44 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44
44 44 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 4. 44 4. 44 4. 44
44 44 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 4. 44 4. 44
44 44 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 4. 44
44 44 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 .
4 4
Slide 52
3.5 GHz vs. 26 GHz Fresenel Zone
100 90 80
height (m)
70 60 50 40 `30 20 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
26GHz 3.5GHz
Range (km)
Modulations Technologies
Slide 54
Introduction
Examples for modulation techniques:

Quadrate Phase Shift Keying (QPSK) Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) Quadrate Amplitude Modulation (QAM) Etc.
Slide 55
Modulation Techniques - Basic

Techniques

Data bits modulate (modify) a carrier signal message(t) Basic modulation techniques

carrier
Amplitude Frequency Phase

0 1 0
modulator
transmitted signal
data bits unmodulated carrier Amplitude Modulation (AM) Frequency Modulation (FSK) (Differential) Phase Modulation (DPSK)
Slide 56
Modulation Techniques - Basic Techniques
Data bits are represented over the transmission channel by SYMBOLS Symbol rate is expressed in Baud
Jean Maurice Emile BAUDOT (1845 - 1903)
- 1874 - Baudot code - 5 bits - for use with telegraphs (more economical than Morse code) - 1894 - Telegraph multiplexer
Slide 57
Modulation Techniques
Symbols
Symbol Is a sinusoidal signal (carrier) with specific parameters dictated by the bit(s), transmitted for finite period of time. Carrier parameters do not change for the duration of the symbol Even if the symbol itself is comprised of one single frequency (the carrier), the fact that it is transmitted over a finite period of time generates an infinite spectrum, centered on the carrier frequency.
Slide 58
Modulation Techniques - Symbols
Time domain
Frequency domain
A
unmodulated carrier
fc
Modulated carrier (symbols)
fc
1 T
Slide 59
Modulation Techniques - Quadrature

Amplitude Modulation (QAM)
QAM is a modulation modifying the phase and the amplitude of the carrier signal QAM symbols are represented by the carrier signal being transmitted with specific phase / amplitude (dictated by the message), for finite periods of time.
Slide 60
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) Polar Coordinates

Symbol presentation
A Amplitude distance from origin Phase Angle from positve x axis A1
Symbol 1 is a cosine waveform of: symbol 1 - amplitude A1 - phase
A1 cos t
A1cos t (phase 0; reference)
Symbol Generation
Symbol 1 = A1cos( t )
For the generation of such symbols, there is a need for an oscillator able to modify its phase based on the symbol that has to be transmitted not a very trivial topic.
Symbol reception
To identify the symbol, the receiver needs a reference carrier, in phase with the carrier used by the transmitter (coherent demodulation).
Slide 61
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)

I/Q coordinates (a bit of trigonometry)
cos( t - ) = cos t*cos + sin t*sin As is constant : cos = constant = Kc sin = constant = Ks
cos( t - ) = Kc*cos t + Ks*sin t
Symbol representation
A cosine waveform of frequency t with any specific phase can be represented as the sum of a sine and a cosine waveforms of same frequency t. The phase of the resultant signal is dictated by the relative amplitudes of the sine and cosine waveforms, through Kc = cosine amplitude = cos ; Ks = sine amplitude = sin By controlling Kc and Ks, any phase of the waveform may be generated. A cosine waveform may be identified by its In phase (I) component amplitude, Kc (cosine) Quadrature phase (Q) component amplitude, Ks (sine)

I/Q coordinates Examples
Q
=
= 0.7 4 Ks = sin = 0.7 4 cos( t - ) = 0.7cos t + 0.7sin t 4 Kc = cos
= 4
= 0.9 8 Ks = sin = 0.4 8 cos( t - ) = 0.9cos t + 0.4sin t 8 Kc = cos Proprietary & Confidential Slide 63
= 8

I/Q coordinates Symbol Generation
cos( t - ) = Kc*cos t + Ks*sin t
Kc Ks
cos t
cos t
2 Easier to implement
sin t
symbol
Symbol reception
The symbol is identified by the relative amplitude of the sine
and cosine components. there is no need for coherent carrier.
Mapping process
QAM64 has 64 constellation points Constellation Point
Q
Constelation point
When the mapping

process received the 6 bits needed to be transmitted it divide it to 3 bits for Q signal and the other 3 bits for the I signal. Then it choose the right constellation point which represent the bits needed to be transmitted.
I
Slide 65
Mapping process
The bits to be transmitted are 101111.
Q level
The bits are divided Constelation into 3 bits for Q and 3 point bits for I. 101 -> Q 111 -> I The Q signal are at a certain level defined by the mapping process. The I signal is handled in the same manner.
I level Proprietary & Confidential Slide 66

number of bits per symbol bit rate / Baud rate number of amplitudes phases modulation technique
QAM constellations (patterns)

generated using nr. of cosine amplitudes nr. of sine amplitudes
constellation
f or eb m n u s ob m s l y
Q
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 44 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 44 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 44 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 +4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 44 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 44 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 44 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 +4 4 4 4 4 44 4 44 4 4 4 4 4 4 444 4 44 4 4 4 4 44 4 44 444 4 44 4 44 444 4 44 4 44 +4 4 4 4 4 44 4 44 4 4 4 4 4 4 444 4 44 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 44 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 44 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
64QAM
64
6/1
52
-4
-4
-4
-4
+4
+4
+4
+4
+4
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 44 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 44 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 -4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 44 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 44 44 4 4 4 4 4 44 4 4 4 4 44 4 4 4 -4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 44 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 44 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 -4
8 (3 bits)
8 (3 bits)
not all combinations are used
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 44 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 44 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 -4
Slide 67
Q/I formats
Q and I are 90 difference from each other. Each one of those signals is basically enhanced (Quadurate) Amplitude Modulation. Due to the fact the signals have 90 they will not interfere each other if they are combined. Combination of those signals will provide us ..
a signal with Amplitude and Phase changes !
Slide 68
Link Budget
i) Transmit Power, Receiver Sensitivity & Fade Margin
a. b. Transmit Power : Receiver Sensitivity :
This is the RF power which is transmitted by RF unit.
This is the minimum power, which can be sensed by RF unit and signals can be received.
c.
Fade Margin :
Fade Margin = Receiver Threshold (10E-6) - Actual received power
Slide 69
Link Budget
ii) Link Budget
The Link Budget sums all attenuations and amplifications of the signal between the transmitter output and receiver input terminals. This can be illustrated in the figure below:
Power Output Power Propagation Loss and attenuation Feeder Loss Antenna Gain Antenna Gain Feeder Loss
Received Power Fading Margin 4dB
Receiver Threshold
Distance
Transmitted & Received Power

Link Budget
As illustrated in the figure the received Power in the radio link terminal can be calculated as follows : Pin = Pout AF + G ABF A0 AG AL Where Pin = Received Power (dBm) Pout = Transmitted Power (dBm) AF = Antenna Feeder Loss (dB) G = Antenna Gain (dBi) ABF = Free space Loss (dB) (between isotropic antennas) A0 = Obstacle Loss (dB) AG = Gas Attenuation (dB) AL = Additional Loss (dB)
Slide 71
Noise and sensitivity

To every transmitted signal a thermal noise is added, the thermal noise is marked by the letter N and defined by Boltsman constant [K] ( ) multiple the temperature in Kelvin [T] K = 4 1 4 4 .1 4 4 (room temperature equal to 290) multiple the bandwidth in MHz [B]. Or in other words (in the linear way)
N = K T B
in the logarithmical way Signal to Noise Ration (SNR) defined as the ratio between the signal strength and the noise strength. Every active system adds a certain noise to the signal the parameter which described it call Noise Figure (NF). Noise figure defined as the ratio between the input SNR to the output SNR.
NF = SNR SNR NF = S IN N IN SNR OUT S IN = N IN + NF + SNR OUT

IN OUT
IN
= 11 4 LogB + NF + SNR OUT 1+ 4
N = 4 Log ( K T ) + 4 LogB = 11 4 LogB 4 4 1+ 4

Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR)
Power received
Power received
Required received power Sensitivity SNR SNR External interference Noise floor
Sensitivity SNR
Noise floor
{thermal noise + implementation ){noise (NF
Calculating receiver sensitivity
)Note: SNR is a function of rate; values range from 5 dB to 30 dB(
:For correct operation Pr interference + SNR

2 Mbps Signal
1. Construction of 2Mbps signal
i. ii. iii. Voice frequency Sampling Qunatization
iv. Digitization v. 64 kbps signal Multiplexing.
vi. PDH vii. SDH
Slide 74
Voice Frequency
Energy
Frequency in Hz 0 300 3400 4000
Slide 75
Sampling
Voltage Time
Voltage Time
Slide 76
Quantization
Before Quantization
Fixed 256nos Voltage levels
After Quantization
Time
Slide 77
Digitization
Each sample will be represented by 8 bits
Slide 78
64 kbps Multiplexing
0 1 2 3 4
Mu ltip lex er
27
28
29
30
31
25 26 27 28 29 30 31
2Mbps stream
Slide 79
PDH
2Mbps stream
1 2 3 4
2/8 Multiplexer
8Mbps stream
3 4
8 / 32 Multiplexer
32 Mbps stream
3 4
32 / 140 Multiplexer
140 Mbps stream
M=Multiplexer
SDH
2Mbps stream
1 2
2Mbps stream
1
STM-1
ADM
STM-1
20 21
20 21
2Mbps stream
Slide 81
PDH- Plesynchronous Digital Hierarchy

i.
Level 0 1 2 3 4
Rate(Mb/s) 0.064 2.048 8.448 34.368 139.264
E1 1 4 16 64
Slide 82
SDH-Synchronous digital Hierarchy
Level STM-1 STM-4 STM-8 STM-16 STM-64
Rate(Mb/s) 155.52 622.08 1244.16 2488.32 ~10GHz
E1 63 252 504 1008 4032
Slide 83

Microwave Fundamentals

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Microwave Fundamentals

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Radio Wave Propagation & Its characteristics

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Radio Wave Propagation & Its characteristics

Radio Wave Propagation & Its characteristics

Where RI1 = Refractive index of medium 1 RI2 = Refractive index of medium 2

iv) K-Factor & Effective Earth Radius:

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Radio Wave Propagation & Its characteristics

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Radio Wave Propagation & Its characteristics

Radio Wave Propagation & Its characteristics

P1 Attenuation = 10 log (P2/P1) db

Radio Wave Propagation & Its characteristics

due to water body and fading due to atmospheric duct.

Radio Wave Propagation & Its characteristics

Effective Earth Multi path fading Atmospheric duct

Effective Earth Fading due to earth bulge Surface duct

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Trunk Radio Characteristics

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Thermal Fade Margin

Flat Fade Margin

Flat fade Margin Rain

Effective Fade Margin

Flat Dispersive Fade Fade Margin Margin

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E16 E1 E15 E14 E13 E12 E11 E10 E9

H14 H15 H16 H1 H2 H3

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Microwave Frequency Band

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i) Microwave Frequency Bands as per ITU Radio Regulation :

B and N um ber S ym bol 4 V LF 4 LF 4 MF 4 HF 4 V HF 4 UHF 4 4 S HF 4 4 E HF 1 1

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ii) Microwave Frequency Band used in Practical Systems :

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v) Frequency & Bandwidth :

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iv) Antenna Gain and Beam width

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vi) Spot frequency

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Free Space Propagation

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Free Space propagation

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Free Space propagation

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Free Space Loss

26 GHz d=1km ---> L = 121 dBm d=2km ---> L = 127 dBm

cos( t - ) = Kccos t + Kssin t