Overview Of Protection Fundamentals

Classification Of Relays

Protective relays Monitoring Relays Programming relays Regulating Relays Auxiliary Relays

Design Criteria

Reliability- the ability to act correctly when needed (Dependability) & to avoid maloperation (Security) Speed min. fault time & damage Selectivity max. service continuity Economics max. protection at min. cost Simplicity- min. equipment & circuitry.

Protective Relaying Vs Station Operator

During abnormal conditions that develop slowly, alert & skillful operator may be able to avoid unnecessary trips. Protective Relaying should give only alarms. Where quick & accurate action is required, it is unwise to rely on operator. Also, under such conditions operator has so many other things to do.

Undesired Tripping Vs Failure to Trip when Desired

When you are asked to choose between the chance of undesired or unnecessary tripping and failure to trip when tripping is desired, which one do you choose?

Undesired Tripping Vs Failure to Trip when Desired

Best practice is to choose the former i.e the chance of unnecessary tripping. Failure to trip has been the worst offender

How do protective relays operate?

Relays operate by virtue of the current and/or voltage supplied to them by current and voltage transformers connected in various combinations to the system element that is to be protected.

Zones of Protection
The power system is divided into protective zones for: Generators Transformers Buses Transmission & distribution circuits Motors

Device Numbers
21 - Distance Relay 27 Under Voltage Relay 32 Power Relay 37 Under Current or under Power Relay 40 Field Failure Relay 49 Thermal Relay 50 Instantaneous Over Current

Device Numbers
51 Time Over Current Relay 59 Over voltage relay 60 Voltage or Current balance relay 64 Ground protective relay 78 Out of step protective relay 81 Frequency relay 85 Carrier or pilot-wire receiver relay

Device Numbers
86 Locking out relay 87 Differential protective relay 94 Tripping or trip-free relay

Applying Protective Relays

Information on the following areas needed: - System Configuration - Existing System protection and its difficulties - Existing Operating procedure and practices - Degrees of protection required - Fault study - Maximum load and current transformer ratios - VT locations, connections & ratios - Impedance of the lines and transformers

Classification of Relays on Technology

RELAYS

Electromechanical

Static

Analogue

Digital

Numerical

Classification of Relays on Technology

Electromechanical Relays - use magneto motive force - have moving parts- hinged armature & disc Static Relays - no moving parts in the measuring element - designed using electronics - can have output elements with moving parts (miniature relays)

Classification of Relays on Technology

Electromechanical Relays - use magneto motive force - have moving parts- hinged armature & disc Static Relays - no moving parts in the measuring element - designed using electronics - can have output elements with moving parts (miniature relays)

Classification of Relays on Technology

Static Relays Due to evolution in electronics static relays are further divided into: - Static Analogue - Static Digital - Static Numerical

Classification of Relays on Technology

Static Analogue Relays - Static relays designed using analogue electronic components. - The input signals fed to analogue measuring elements like comparators, operational amplifiers etc. - compare input analogue signal with reference signal & generate output signal

Classification of Relays on Technology

Static Digital Relays - Static relays designed using digital electronic components. - The input analogue signals converted into digital signals using A/D converters and fed to digital comparators. - compare digital signal with reference signal & generate output signal

Classification of Relays on Technology

Static Numerical Relays - are also digital relays - The input analogue signals converted into digital signals using A/D converters and fed to the microprocessor directly. - Entire protection element realised using software programs. - Application software stored in non-volatile memory. - Input signals continuously sampled & stored in memory.

Classification of Relays on Technology

Static Numerical Relays - software perform comparison of input signals against set thresholds values stored in memory & generate the output. - the software algorithms do the jobs done by hardware comparators. - multiple protections integrated. - give lot of other information & features like fault recording, event recording, measurements etc. - communicate with other computers - provide self diagnostic function. - capable to adapt itself to change.

Technology comparison for Protective Relays

Sl. No. 1.

Subject Measuring Elements/ Hardware

Electromechanical Induction disc, Electromagnets, Induction cup, Balance beam Bulky Plug setting, Dial setting

Static/Electronic Discrete R, L, C, Transistors, Analogue ICs, Comparators

Numerical Microprocessor s, Digital ICs, Digital Signal Processors

2. 3.

Construction size Parameter setting

Modular, Compact Most compact Thumb wheel, Potentiometers, Dual In Line switches Keypad for Numerical values

Technology comparison for Protective Relays continued

Sl. No. 4. Subject Electromechanical 8-10 VA Static/ Electronic 1 VA Numerical

CT Loading/ burden

< 0.5 VA

5.

Self monitoring

No

Yes .Hardware partially .Power supply

Yes .Hardware .Power supply .Output relays .Software .CT, PT, Ckts

Technology comparison for Protective Relays continued

Sl. No.

Subject

Electromechanical

Static/Electronic

Numerical

6.

Calibration

Frequently required as settings drift due to ageing

Required as Not required as settings drift due to settings are stored ageing in memory in digital format
Susceptible Immune

7.

Electromagnet Immune ic/electrostatic /HF disturbance Multiple Not possible characteristics

8.

Not possible

Possible

Technology comparison for Protective Relays continued

Sl. No. 9.

Subject Integrated protective functions

Electromechanical Not possible

Static/Electronic Not possible

Numerical Possible

Technology comparison for Protective Relays continued

Sl. No. 15. 16. 17. 18.

Subject Range of settings Operational value indication Fault disturbance recording Digital communication port Commissioning support from relay

Electromechanical Limited Not possible Not possible Not possible

Static/ Electronic Wide Possible Not possible Not available

Numerical Wide Possible Possible Available

19.

No

No

Yes