Maria Bhekti Utari Harvia Rini

patterns of association that exist between lexical items in a language (Wikipedia).

Field theory is an attempt to classify lexemes

according to shared and differentiating features.

Truth conditional semantics studies lexical relations

by comparing predications that can be made about the same referring expressing. Its task is to account for the meaning relations between different expressions in a language

Lexical Fields
Geeraerts (1994) :set of semantically related items that belong together on the basis of their meaning. Bussmann (1996): the meaning of the words in a lexical field delimit each other. Kastovsky (1981) : the lexemes of a lexical field must belong to the same part of speech [e.g. verbs or adjectives] and can be distinguished from each other because of minimal opposition that exists among them. Lbners (2002) :the words in a lexical field are interrelated by precisely definable meaning relations and that the group of of words is complete in terms of the relevant meaning relation

Part-whole relationship : arm includes hand, which

includes finger and thumb.

Sequential : numbers (one, two, three etc) Cyclical (January, February etc; Sunday, Monday etc;

spring, summer, autumn, winter)

Hierarchical : second-minute-hour-day (that is also part-

whole relationship)
Structural paradigms : man, woman, boy and girl

to determine the semantic features that differentiate the members of the set from one another using the square brackets
stool chair bench sofa : piece of furniture; furniture

for sitting

stool chair : piece of furniture; furniture for sitting ;

for one person

bench sofa : piece of furniture; furniture for sitting ;

having a back

Kinship is universal since all humans are related to other humans through blood ties and through marriage, but kinship systems differ from society to society.
Four primitive features:

parent, offspring, sibling and spouse. The components male and female indicate as M and F. Definitions of eight predicates :

father : M parent; mother : F parent brother : M sibling; sister : F sibling son : M offspring; daughter : F offspring husband : M spouse; wife : F spouse

 A relation between two words in which the meaning of

one of the words includes the meaning of the other word. The relationship between each lower term and the higher term (super ordinate) It is not restricted to objects, abstract concepts, or nouns. It can be identified in many other areas of the lexicon. It involves the logical relationship of entailment e.g. There is a horse entails that There is an animal.

Synonyms are different words with identical or very similar meanings. Words that are synonyms are said to be synonymous The state of being a synonym is called synonymy.

Synonyms can be any part of speech (e.g. nouns ,

verbs, adjectives, adverbs or prepositions), as long as both members of the pair are the same part of speech.

Some examples of English synonyms are: student and pupil (noun) petty crime and misdemeanor (noun) buy and purchase (verb) sick and ill (adjective) quickly and speedily (adverb) on and upon (preposition)

Synonyms are defined with respect to certain senses of words; for instance, pupil as the "aperture in the iris of the eye" is not synonymous with student.

Some synonyms are dialectally different such as lift-

elevator, firefly-lightning bug, skillet-frying pan.

Synonym words often come in different value e.g. the

adjectives skinny, thin, slender may have the same meaning but they differ in connotation.
Two or more terms can be synonymous only if they are

compatible with the same subjects, for instance : hard subject is synonym with difficult subject but difficult is not a synonym of hard in hard chair.

Antonyms are opposite in meaning, and when they occur as predicates of the same subject the predications are contradictory. Antonyms may be :

nouns (Communist-non-Communist), verbs (advance-retreat) antonymous pairs of adjectives are specially numerous (high-low, wide-narrow, thick-thin, deep-shallow).

Words may have several different antonyms,

depending on the meaning:

long - short tall - short

Binary Antonyms (Complementary antonyms):

Expressions that come in pairs and which, between

them, exhaust all the relevant possibilities. Being "not X" automatically means being "Y" and being "not Y" means being "X", if X and Y are complementary antonyms. Examples: dead/alive on/off married /unmarried.

Non-binary Antonyms (Gradable Antonyms):

Expressions are gradable antonyms if they are at

opposite ends of a continuous scale of values (a scale which can vary according to the context of use).
With gradable antonyms it is possible to be both "not X"

and "not Y", but somewhere in the middle.

Examples:

hot/cold tall/short love/hate.

A Comparison of Four Relations :

Synonyms and binary antonyms are mirror images of each other: if one of two sentences containing synonyms is true, the other is true if one is false, the other is false

Of two sentences with binary antonyms:

if one is true, the other is false if one is false, the other is true

Non-binaries pairs :
the truth of either member of the pair entails the falsity of the

other member both members of the pairs can be false

Binaries pairs :
the truth of either member of the pair entails the falsity of the

other member both members of the pairs cannot be false

Hyponym and super ordinate form a still different pair:

the truth of the hyponym entails the truth of the super ordinate the falsity of the super ordinate entails the falsity of the

hyponym

Relational antonyms (Converses) Pairs in which one describes a relationship between two objects and the other describes the same relationship when the two objects are reversed. ( parent and child, teacher and student, or buy and sell ) Converseness requires the two arguments, theme and association, to be of about the same size, rank or importance. Common converse pairs include :

Kinship and social roles : husband-of/wife-of; employer-of/employee-off. Directional opposites : above/below; in front of/ behind; left-of/right-of; before/after

 Symmetrical relationship is a special

kind of converseness that use a single term. Symmetry expressed by predicate (different degrees of saturation). Symmetrical predicates are adjectives combined with a preposition with, from or to :

A and B are congruent (with each other) A and B are different (from each other) A and B are equivalent (to each other)

Symmetrical predicates may also be

participles formed from causative verbs :

If I connect X and Y, X and Y are connected with

each other.
A combines X and Y A combines X with Y and Y

with X (compare, confuse, group, mix , reconcile)

A disconnects X and Y A disconnects X from Y

and Y from X (disconnect, distinguish, separate)

A connects X and Y A connects X and Y to X

(connect, join, relate, tie)

Quantifiers :
as subject (first term) as object (second term).

Transitions Transitions predicates express movements from one place to another, respectively the Source and the Goal.
Predicates of transitions have arguments in the roles of theme or

actor, source, goal and path, though the last three are not necessarily expressed in a sentence for example :
The bus goes from Greenville to Stratford by way of Compton. theme source goal path The boat drifted over the water from one place to another. theme path source goal

Predicates that are specialized in meaning : marked Predicates that are general in meaning : less marked.
For example:

less marked/general : go marked/specific : walk, drift, fly

Transfer
Some predicates express transfer, causing

the movement of an entity from one place or person to another place or person. Predicates of transfer have the same argument roles plus an agent. There are two sorts of transfer verbs that can be distinguished, the first one is in which the agent moves and the other one in which the agent does not move.