STRUCTURE of MATTER.

THE BOHR MODEL

Every chemical element, who we know it till now,
it is assigned in the periodic table of chemical
elements.
The atom of each chemical element is perfect
defined. It is formed by one nucleus, who has the
electrical charge positive and around him revolve
the electrons with negative electrical charge.
The nucleus is composed by nucleons: protons
with positive charge and neutrons electrically
neutral .
If we have one atom X, this atom is characterized by
two numbers:
- A: is the total number of nucleons. It is called also
number of mass, because practically, mass of all
nucleons is the mass of the atom.
Z: is the total number of protons that the atom has in
his nucleus; it is called atomic number, because it is
also the number of the chemical element in the
periodic table.
Difference N=A-Z corresponds to number of neutrons
By convention was adopted this inscription:
A
z
X.
Where X is the symbol of chemical atom.

In atomic physics we use some specific units,
including:
- Atomic mass unit (a.m.u.)
It is 1/12 from mass of isotope of carbon atom
12. We know that mass of one mole of carbon
is equal with 12 g, then one a.m.u can be
expressed in grams:
g
N N
u m a
A A
24
23
10 66 , 1
10 023 , 6
1 1 12
12
1
. . 1

=

= = =
N
A
number of Avogadro
Unit of energy;electron-volt (eV)
It is kinetic energy of one electron accelerated
by potential difference equal with 1 volt:
1eV=1,610
-19
C 1V=1,610
-19
J
The equivalence between energy and mass is
given by Einstein formula: W=m c
2
,
this formula allows us to make transformation
between units of mass and units of energy and
vice versa.
Like example can be calculated that :
1 a.m.u. is a energy equal with 931,5 MeV
Distribution of protons and neutrons in nuclei,
allows to define particular groups of chemical
elements called:
- Isotopes
Are elements who have the same atomic
number (Z) and the same chemical properties,
but a different number of mass (A), the
difference being the different number of
neutrons.
They have different physical properties, in
particularly some of them can be radioactive,
they is called radioisotopes.
A extensive feature of all chemical elements is
given in Nuclear Periodic Table .
- Isobar
Are elements whose atoms have the same
number of mass, but a different atomic number,
having different properties chemical and
physical.
Example: and
- Isotonic
Are elements whose atoms in nucleus have
the same number of neutrons , but different
properties chemical and physics
Example: ; ; N=A-Z=8.


C
14
6
N
14
7
C
14
6
N
15
7
O
16
8
Presents interest the fact that from the crowd of
chemical elements, an essential role in
achieving of the living structures have it only:
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen wich by
their abundance, in biology an medicine, are
called macro elements. Another category of
elements: sulfur, iron, calcium, magnesium,
sodium, potassium, phosphorus and others in
living matter are in small amounts, but they play
very important roles. Because they have a
small part in composition of living matter are
called microelements.
ATOM of BOHR
According to the hypothesis of De Broglie, to
any particle with mass m, and speed v
corresponds to one associated wavelenght
determined from the relation:
(1);

where: h=6,6210
-34
Js is constant of Planck.
Electrons revolve around nucleus on well
determined orbits.
v m
h
d
=
Orbit is stable if it has a whole number of
wavelenght
d
. For a circular orbit we get:
(2) n whole positive number;

d
- associated wavelength.
Performing substitution for
d
from (1) in (2) we
get:
(3) where (4)

l= mvr orbital angular momentum of the
electron. The formula (4)is relation for
quantification of the angular momentum of the
electron.
t n r = 2
v
2
m
h
n r = t
t 2
v
h
n r m =

When the atoms absorb energy, electrons
throughput from nucleus, and when issued
energy, they throughput towards nucleus. The
energy emitted by photons has formula :

(7)


For example, in case of hydrogen atom at return of
excited electrons we have these series of
radiation(Fig.1) :
on level n=1 - series Layman (the ultraviolet);
on level n=2 -series Balmer (the visible);
on leveln=3 -series Paschen (the infrared ).
ni nf
W W h = v
Fig.1
QUANTUM NUMBERS
Bohr model is a simple model of quantified
atom, it has only one proton and one electron
who revolve around nucleus on a circular
orbit. In case of the atoms who has more than
one electron, the Bohr Model can't explain
more complex spectra of emission or
absorption of it. In atoms with more electrons,
they have interactions not only with nucleus,
but also with eachother. From this cause, the
formula for levels of energy deduced for the
atom of hydrogen and hidrogenoid atoms
(He
+
; Li
2+
; Be
3+
):
For atoms with more electrons it
is not correct.

2
2
2
0
4 2
1
8
n
h
e mZ
W
n
=
c
(8)

Principal Quantum Number(n)
It was found that the spectra of the atoms with
more electrons, can be explained if in the
expression for energy are introduced a series of
corrections which take into account the
interactions between electrons. Because this
corrections, not change essentially the energy
of Bohr level, the quantum number n, that
quantify the values of the energy, it's called
principal quantum number, this number
receives only positive values
n=1,2,3,..
-Azimuthal quantum number (l)
Sommerfeld considered that the circular orbits
are only a part of electronics orbits and these
must contain and elliptical orbits. He
expanded the quantification and for this kind of
movement and been established that for each
circular orbit n corresponds a series of elliptical
orbits. Was introduced a new quantum number
l named azimuthal quantum number(or orbital),
that characterize angular momentum of the
electron who corresponding to elliptic orbits.
For the same n; l can takes values 0, 1, 2, 3 ... n-
1, that means to one n level of energy
corresponds n elliptical orbits.
-Magnetic quantum number
For explain gyromagnetic phenomena(the
rapport between magnetic moment and the
angular moment) of the electrons was
necessary to take into acount that the orbits of
electrons are not in the same plane, but they
have a spacial distribution, this led to the
introduction of a new quantum number (m),
called also magnetic number.
For some value of l, the quantum magnetic
number may takes 2l+1 values as follows :
-l, -(l-1)... 0, ... (l-1), l
-Spin quantum number(s)
Different features of the spectra of alkali
metals, led to the hypothesis(1925) that the
electron has a rotation around its axis,
movement called spin.
Spin angular momentum has only discrete
values according to formula :


where s is quantum spin number, who for
electron takes the values 1/2
) 1 ( ) ( + =

s s S
t 2
h
=
(9)
- CONCLUSIONS
Stationary state of the electron in an atom are
characterized by four quantum numbers.
Any combination of these numbers indicates
a particular state of the electron. All electrons are
in states with the same principal
quantum number are considered as part of
an electronic level.
For the same value of n, the
states characterized by different values of azimuthal
quantum number l, forming electronic sublevels.
To give a short description of levels is used the
following symbols: K(n=1); L(n=2); M(n=3) etc.;
sublevels characterized by the azimuthal quantum
number l, called : s(l=0); p(l=1); d(l=2); f(l=3) etc.
Exclusion principle of Pauli (1924) says that in
an atom no two electrons can have all 4quantum
numbers identical. According to this principle the
maximum number of electron son each level is limited.
Example:
on level K(n=1), l=0, m=0, s=1/2, can be 2
electrons;
on level L(n=2), l=0, m=0, s=1/2, can be 2
l=1, m= -1, 0, 1, s=1/2,can be 6;
on level M(n=3), l=0, m=0, s=1/2, can 2 e
l=1, m= -1, 0, 1, s=1/2, can 6 e
l=2, m=-2, -1, 0, 1, 2, s=1/2, can be 10;
and so on.
Therefore on the K level can be 2 electrons on the L -
8, on the M - 18, etc.., on the maximum level n can be
2 n
2
electrons.