CHSSC Slides03 Fp2005 Ver1

Computer Hardware and System
Software Concepts
Introduction to concepts of Operating System (Process & File Management)
Operating System
Process Management
Process Management
Functions:
– To keep track of the status of each process
– To suspend and choose some processes based on some criteria
– To coordinate inter process communication
Copyright © 2004, Infosys ER/CORP/CRS/OS09/003

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Technologies Ltd Version No: 2.0
Some concepts
Processor
– Hardware component that is capable of executing instructions
Process
– An instance of a program in execution
– Is an active entity whereas a program is a passive entity
– Needs certain resources for execution in which a processor is one of them

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Structure of a process
Code Region : Contains the executable instructions of the process
Data Region : Holds the data areas used by the process
Stack Region : Holds the dynamic data such as local data in a

procedure,arguments to a procedure/function etc.
Program Counter (PC): The PC gives the address of the next instruction to be
executed by the process.

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States of a process
New : Created
Ready : Assign a process to a processor
Run : Instruction execution
Blocked : For an event to occur (Ex: I/O)
Terminated : Finished execution

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Process State Diagram.
Admitted
New
Interrupt
Ready
I/O or Event
Completion Running Exit
IO or Event
Waiting wait(Blocked) Terminated

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Context switching
The task of switching the CPU to another process by saving the state of the old
process and loading the saved state of the new process is known as context
switching
Context switching
– Keeps the CPU busy all the time
– Occurs when any of the following situations is encountered

• An I/O operation is initiated
• An interrupt occurs
• An I/O is completed
• A process terminates

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Concurrent processes
Concurrent processes execute in operating systems and can be of two types

viz.,
– Independent
– Co-operating
Independent process - are those processes which cannot affect or be affected

by other processes executing in the system.

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Co-operating processes
Benefits
– Sharing of information
– Computation speed-up
– Modularity
– Convenience
Communication
– Message passing
– Shared memory

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Some concepts
Uniprogramming
Multiprogramming
Multiprocessing
Multitasking

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Scheduling
Policy to decide which ready process is to be picked up next.
Criteria which lets a particular policy to be chosen are the following:

– CPU Utilisation
– Throughput
– Turnaround time
– Waiting time
– Response time

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Scheduling policy
Scheduling policies are of two categories

– Non-Preemptive scheduling
– Preemptive scheduling

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Non-preemptive scheduling
CPU is allocated to a process till the job is over or incurs an I/O wait
Example
– FCFS ( First Come First Serve )
Disadvantage
Monopoly of the process

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Example
Find the average waiting time for FCFS for the following processes whose CPU
time is given below:
P1 – 6 ms
P2 – 8 ms
P3 – 7 ms
P4 – 3 ms
Gantt Chart’s are used to analyze and evaluate the CPU scheduling.
A Gantt chart is graphical representation of duration of task against

progression of time.

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Example contd..
P2 P3 P4
P1
0 6 21 24
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time
Average waiting time= 10.25

Average Turn around time=16.25
Average Response Time=

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Preemptive scheduling
Fixed time slice is specified during which a process gets attention
If the process gets terminated before the time slice then CPU makes a context
switch
Example
– Round Robin
– Shortest Job First(SJF)
– Priority Scheduling
SJF and Priority Scheduling may be either preemptive or non-preemptive.

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Round Robin Scheduling
Let the time quantum be 4 msec.

P1 – 6 ms,P2 – 8 ms,P3 – 7 ms,P4 – 3 ms
4 8 12 24
Average Waiting time=13.25
P1 P2 P3 P4 P1 P2 P3
15 17 21
Average Turn Around time=?

Average Response Time=?
Round Robin is a Preemptive Scheduling algorithm by nature

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Priority Scheduling (Non Preemptive method)
Process Execution Time Priority Arrival time in msec
P1 10 2 0
P2 4 1 2
P3 6 3 0
P1 P2 P3
0 10 14 20
What is the Average waiting time and Average

Turnaround time?

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Priority Scheduling (Preemptive method)
Process Execution Time Priority Arrival time in msec
P1 10 2 0
P2 4 1 2
P3 6 3 0
Preempt P1
P1 P2 P1 P3
0 2 6 14 20
What is the Average waiting time and Average

Turnaround time?

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Priority scheduling contd…
Disadvantage
Due to priority some low priority jobs have to wait for longer time when the
frequency of high priority jobs are more
Solution
Aging :It is a concept in which the priority of a process is increased after some
time

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Threads
Thread is light weight where as a process is heavy weight.
A thread is a part of the program. But a process is a program itself
In the case of multi threading two parts of the same program can execute
simultaneously
Threads shares the same address space, data section and resources
Different Stack (to hold local data) and PC.
Context switching is easy in the case of threads

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Operating System
File Management
File Management
Part of the Operating System that deals with effective information

management
Features:
– Minimal I/O operations on files
– Flexibility between logical and physical block size
– Automatic allocation of file space
– Flexible file naming facility such as links, aliases etc

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File System.
File System is a method of storing and managing the files, which contain data.
This makes it easy to locate and access the data.
Different Operating Systems incorporate different File Systems.
Example.
– FAT (File Allocation Table)
– NTFS (New Technology File System)
– Unix File System

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FAT.
File Allocation Table (FAT) is a file system that was developed for MS-DOS.
It is used in consumer versions of Microsoft Windows up to and including Windows Me.
The purpose of the “File Allocation Table” is to keep track of which areas of the disk are
available and which areas are in use.
FAT 12 was the first version in FAT.

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Versions of FAT.
FAT12
FAT16
FAT32

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FAT12.
Uses a 12-bit binary number to hold the cluster number.
can hold a maximum of 4,086 clusters.
most suitable for very small volumes, and is used on floppy disks and hard disk partitions
smaller than about 16 MB

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FAT16.
Uses a 16-bit binary number to hold the cluster number.
can hold a maximum of 65,526 clusters.
used for hard disk volumes ranging in size from 16 MB to 2,048 MB.
VFAT (called Virtual FAT) is a variant of FAT16.

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FAT32.
Uses a 28-bit binary number to hold the cluster number, as 4 of the 32 bits are "reserved.
Can theoretically handle volumes with over 268 million clusters.
Can support (theoretically) medium up to 2 TB in size.
maximum file size is 4GB
Used in by newer versions of Windows, like Windows 98, Windows ME and Windows
2000.

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File systems
MSDOS - file system
UNIX - file system
NTFS

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MS DOS-File system
MS-DOS has a tree structure i.e. files are organized on each logical drive
within a hierarchical directory structure.
Root directory is the top directory which holds numerous files and sub-
directories.

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MS DOS-File system
Naming convention in DOS consists of

– Logical drive
– Path
– Filename
Example:
C:\ER\CHSSC\CHAPTER.DOC

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MS DOS – Data access
Basic allocation units of each drive- CLUSTERS
chkdsk is used to find the cluster size in a system
Each drive has a file-allocation table (FAT)
FAT is a roadmap that DOS follows to locate the clusters belonging to a

particular file.

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Structure of a Hard disk
SECTOR
TRACK
CYLINDER
PLATTER

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MS DOS – Data access
The entry in the FAT corresponding to each cluster contains a value that
indicates:
which cluster is unused
which cluster is reserved
which cluster considered as a bad cluster
the number of next cluster in the file
the last cluster of the file

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How to access the contents of a file?
FAT
0 FFFD
1 FFFF
First Cluster of File A 2 0003
End of File B is cluster 6

3 0004
4 0007
First Cluster of File B 5 0006

End of File A is cluster 7
6 FFFF
7 FFFF
Cluster 8 is free
8 0000

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Volume structure in MS-DOS
Boot-sector : Contains a bootstrap loader and disk characteristics
FAT : Main file allocation table
Additional FAT : used for recovery during the failure of main FAT
Root directory : It is in a fixed position of fixed size
File space : Rest of disk space which is available for files and sub-directories.
Additional
Boot Sector FAT Root Directory File Space
FATs
Volume Structure of a Disk

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File permissions in MS-DOS
read-only : a file cannot be written or deleted
hidden : such files ignored by many commands
system : such files are system files ( OS related files)
archive : used for back-up

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UNIX File system
UNIX has multiple file systems
A file system
– is a formatted partition of the disk
– Is a group of files having relevant information
There is always one compulsory file system known as the root.

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Volume structure in UNIX
Boot block : occupies the beginning of the root file system
Super block : Has the state of the file-its size,where to find the free space on
the file system,how many files it can store etc.
Inode list : It follows the super block-Give the internal representation of the file
Data Block : Contains data.( Size of the blocks can vary from 512 bytes to 4K)

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Volume structure of UNIX
Boot Block Super Block Inode Block Data Block File System 1

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Inode pointer structure Data Block
Direct 0
Direct 1 Data Block
.
.
. Data Block
Direct 9
Data Block
Single Index Block
Indirect
Double
Indirect
Data Block
Triple Index Block Index Block
Indirect
Array of 13
pointers
Data Block
Index Block Index Block Index Block

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Types of users in UNIX
OWNER : the owner of the file
GROUP : all members in the group
OTHERS : all other users in the environment

Owner(u) Group(g) Others(o)
Categories of file permissions
r w x r w x r w x
– Read only
a) Owner, group and others all have read, write and execute permissions
– Write only
– Execute only
r w x r - - r - -
b) Owner has read, write and execute permissions, while Group and
others have only read permission
r w x r w - - - -
c) Owner has read, write and execute permissions, while Group has read
and write and others don't have any permission

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NTFS.
NTFS stands for New Technology File System.
It was introduced with Windows NT
Can support up to 2 TB in size.
no limitation on file sizes.
Allows encryption of files, which FAT does not allow.
NTFS is more reliable.
Security and access control

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NTFS
MFT USER FILE SPACE USER FILE SPACE
Copy of first 16
MFT records

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Comparison of Different File Systems
Features FAT NTFS UNIX file System
Operating Systems DOS and all Windows NT, UNIX and Unix
versions of Windows based OS like
Windows 2000, Linux, etc.
Windows XP
Volume size Limited Virtually unlimited Virtually unlimited
Max file size Limited Limited by the Limited by the

volume of the volume of the
disk disk
Number of files Limited Large Large
Built-in security No Yes Yes
Encryption NO Supported in the Inherent

recent
versions like
NTFS5.
Fault tolerance Low High High

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Thank You!

48

CHSSC Slides03 Fp2005 Ver1

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Computer Hardware and System

– To suspend and choose some processes based on some criteria

– To coordinate inter process communication

Copyright © 2004, Infosys ER/CORP/CRS/OS09/003

– Is an active entity whereas a program is a passive entity

– Needs certain resources for execution in which a processor is one of them

Copyright © 2004, Infosys ER/CORP/CRS/OS09/003

Code Region : Contains the executable instructions of the process

Data Region : Holds the data areas used by the process

Stack Region : Holds the dynamic data such as local data in a

Copyright © 2004, Infosys ER/CORP/CRS/OS09/003

Ready : Assign a process to a processor

Run : Instruction execution

Blocked : For an event to occur (Ex: I/O)

Terminated : Finished execution

Copyright © 2004, Infosys ER/CORP/CRS/OS09/003

Copyright © 2004, Infosys ER/CORP/CRS/OS09/003

– Occurs when any of the following situations is encountered

Copyright © 2004, Infosys ER/CORP/CRS/OS09/003

Concurrent processes execute in operating systems and can be of two types

Independent process - are those processes which cannot affect or be affected

Copyright © 2004, Infosys ER/CORP/CRS/OS09/003

Copyright © 2004, Infosys ER/CORP/CRS/OS09/003

Copyright © 2004, Infosys ER/CORP/CRS/OS09/003

Policy to decide which ready process is to be picked up next.

Criteria which lets a particular policy to be chosen are the following:

Copyright © 2004, Infosys ER/CORP/CRS/OS09/003

Scheduling policies are of two categories

Copyright © 2004, Infosys ER/CORP/CRS/OS09/003

Monopoly of the process

Copyright © 2004, Infosys ER/CORP/CRS/OS09/003

A Gantt chart is graphical representation of duration of task against

Copyright © 2004, Infosys ER/CORP/CRS/OS09/003

Average waiting time= 10.25

Copyright © 2004, Infosys ER/CORP/CRS/OS09/003

Fixed time slice is specified during which a process gets attention

– Shortest Job First(SJF)

SJF and Priority Scheduling may be either preemptive or non-preemptive.

Copyright © 2004, Infosys ER/CORP/CRS/OS09/003

Let the time quantum be 4 msec.

Average Turn Around time=?

Round Robin is a Preemptive Scheduling algorithm by nature

Copyright © 2004, Infosys ER/CORP/CRS/OS09/003

Process Execution Time Priority Arrival time in msec

What is the Average waiting time and Average

Copyright © 2004, Infosys ER/CORP/CRS/OS09/003

Process Execution Time Priority Arrival time in msec

What is the Average waiting time and Average

Copyright © 2004, Infosys ER/CORP/CRS/OS09/003

Copyright © 2004, Infosys ER/CORP/CRS/OS09/003

Thread is light weight where as a process is heavy weight.

A thread is a part of the program. But a process is a program itself

Different Stack (to hold local data) and PC.

Context switching is easy in the case of threads

Copyright © 2004, Infosys ER/CORP/CRS/OS09/003

Part of the Operating System that deals with effective information

– Flexibility between logical and physical block size

– Automatic allocation of file space

– Flexible file naming facility such as links, aliases etc

Copyright © 2004, Infosys ER/CORP/CRS/OS09/003

This makes it easy to locate and access the data.

Different Operating Systems incorporate different File Systems.