Computer Networks

Computer Network

A computer network is defined as the interconnection of 2 or more independent computers or/and peripherals.

Network

Source

Destination

Need of Networks
Communicate and collaborate Share information Share resources Sharing computer files and disk space Sharing high-quality printers Access to common fax machines

Access to common modems

Multiple access to the Internet

Classification of Networks
1. Local Area Networks (LANs) - a computer network covering a small geographic area, like a home, office, or group of buildings. Typically within 5-mile radius. 2. Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs)- are large computer networks usually spanning a city. (within 30 miles) 3. Wide-Area Networks (WANs) - any network whose communications links cross metropolitan, regional, or national boundaries.

Network Topology
The way in which the computers are interconnected together is known as TOPOLOGY.

Types of topologies
Physical topology Logical topology

Types of physical topologies

Bus/Linear Star Ring Tree Mesh

Linear or bus topology

Consists of a main cable, known as backbone cable, with a terminator at each end . All nodes (file server, workstations, and peripherals) are connected to the cable. Ethernet and LocalTalk networks use bus topology.

Advantages of Bus Topology

Easy to connect a computer or peripheral to a linear bus. Requires less cable length. Easy to extend. If one node of the N/W is faulty, the N/W can still remain working.

Disadvantages of Bus Topology

Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable. Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable. Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down. Not meant to be used as a stand-alone solution in a large building.

Star topology
A star topology is designed with each node (file server, workstations, and peripherals) connected directly to a central network hub. Data on a star network passes through the hub before continuing to its destination. The hub manages and controls all functions of the network. It also acts as a repeater for the data flow.

Advantages of Star Topology

Easy to install. No disruptions to the network other than connecting or removing devices. Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.

Disadvantages of Star Topology

Requires more cable length than a bus topology. If the hub fails, nodes attached are disabled. More expensive than bus topology because of the cost of the hub.

Tree Topology
A tree topology combines characteristics of bus and star topologies. It consists of groups of star-configured workstations connected to a bus backbone cable. Tree topologies allow for the expansion of an existing network.

Advantages of a Tree Topology

Point-to-point wiring for individual segments. Supported by several hardware and software venders.

Disadvantages of Tree Topology

Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used. If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down. More difficult to configure than other topologies.

Ring topology
Is a type of computer network configuration where each network computer and device are connect to each other forming A large circle. Data is divided into packets when transmitted. Packet is sent around the ring until it reaches its final destination.

Advantages of ring topology

Requires lesser amount of cable and there are not much of installation problems All stations have equal access

Disadvantages of ring topology

Failure of one computer may impact others Data transfer is slow

Mesh topology
It requires that every terminal should be attached to each other. All the computers must have adequate number of interfaces for the connections to be made. Because of this requirement the installations is somewhat difficult. The length of cable required is quite higher as compared to other topologies.

Advantages of mesh topology

Ease of troubleshooting. Data transfer is faster.

Disadvantages of mesh topology

uses a lot of cabling. Complex Most expensive topology

Considerations When Choosing a Topology

Money. A linear bus network may be the least expensive way to install a network; you do not have to purchase concentrators. Length of cable needed. The linear bus network uses shorter lengths of cable. Future growth. With a star topology, expanding a network is easily done by adding another concentrator. Cable type. The most common cable in schools is unshielded twisted pair, which is most often used with star topologies.

Transmission Technology
Two types of transmission technologies are there: 1. Broadcast Network
Single communication channel is shared by all the machines in the network.

Transmission Technology
2. Point to Point Network
Data is routed directly from source machine to destination machine directly.

Dedicated link

Routing
When data is to be transmitted between two remote machines using intermediate machines, certain routing techniques have to be applied. The intermediate machines may be: 1. Gateway 2. Hub 3. Router 4. Repeater 5. Bridge

Gateway
A gateway is a network point that acts as an entrance to another network. Acts as a bridge between two networks so that data can be transferred between a number of computers. In enterprises, the gateway is the computer that routes the traffic from a workstation to the outside network that is serving the Web pages. In homes, the gateway is the ISP that connects the user to the internet. For example, when you send an e-mail to a friend or when you log in to a Web site, there is a gateway that allows the connection take place.

Hub
A common connection point for devices in a network. Hubs are commonly used to connect segments of a LAN. A hub contains multiple ports. When a packet arrives at one port, it is copied to the other ports so that all segments of the LAN can see all packets

Router

A router is a device that forwards data packets along networks. A router is connected to at least two networks. Routers are located at gateways. Routers use headers and forwarding tables to determine the best path for forwarding the packets. They use protocols to communicate with each other and configure the best route between any two hosts.

Switch
In networks, a device that filters and forwards packets between LAN segments. LANs that use switches to join segments are called switched LANs.

Repeater
Repeaters are used in transmission systems to regenerate signals distorted by transmission loss. Analog repeaters frequently can only amplify the signal while digital repeaters can reconstruct a signal to near its original quality.

Bridge
A device that connects two local-area networks (LANs), or two segments of the same LAN that use the same protocol is known as bridge.

More Concepts
Network protocols. Layering. Network/protocol architecture.

Network Protocols
A communication protocol is a set of rules that specify the format and meaning of messages exchanged between computers across a network. A set of related protocols that are designed for compatibility are called protocol suite.

Human and Computer Protocols Human Protocol

Hi Hi
Got the time?

Computer Protocol
Web client open connection OK send me data <data>

Web server

2:00 time

Protocol Architecture
Task of communication broken up into modules For example file transfer could use three modules File transfer application Communication service module Network access module

Layers
Layers are the different components that need to be designed/implemented when designing/implementing networks. Each layer responsible for a set of functions. Top layer relies on services provided by bottom layer. Layer makes it service available to higher layer through an interface.

Layering
Building complex systems is hard! Approach: Divide and conquer. Split job into smaller jobs, or layers. Analogy to other fields. Building a house: digging, foundation, framing, etc. Car assembly line Basic idea: each step dependent on the previous step but does not need to be aware of how the previous step was done.

Analogy: Air Travel

The problem: air travel. Decomposed into series of steps:
Arrival at airport Check-in Boarding Takeoff Traveling Departure from airport Baggage claim Deplane Landing

More on the air travel analogy

Arrival Departure Baggage claim Deplane Landing

Departing airport

Check-in Boarding Takeoff

intermediate air traffic sites

Airplane routing
Traveling Airplane routing

Arriving airport

A Three Layer Model

Application Layer Transport Layer Network Access Layer

Network Access Layer

Exchange of data between the computer and the network Sending computer provides address of destination May invoke levels of service Dependent on type of network used (LAN, packet switched etc.)

Transport Layer
Reliable data exchange Independent of network being used Independent of application

Application Layer
Support for different user applications e.g. e-mail, file transfer

Layered Protocol Design

Layering model is a solution to the problem of complexity in network protocols The model divides the network protocols into layers, each of which solves part of the network communication problem
Each layer has its own protocol!

Each layer implements a service to the layer above

Relying on services provided by the layers below.

Network/Protocol Architecture
Set of layers, what their functions are, the services each of them provide, and the interfaces between them. A.k.a, protocol architecture or protocol stack. Examples:
ISO-OSI 7 layer architecture. TCP-IP architecture (Internet).

Protocol Data Units (PDU)

At each layer, protocols are used to communicate. At the source, control information is added to user data at each layer, a.k.a., encapsulation. At the receiver, control information is stripped off at each layer going up the stack, a.k.a., decapsulation.

Example 1: ISO OSI Architecture

ISO: International Standards Organization OSI: Open Systems Interconnection.
Application

Presentation Session Transport

Network Data link

Physical

ISO Model
Layer 7: Application Application-specific protocols (e.g. ftp, http, smtp) Layer 6: Session establish sessions between machines. Layer 5: Presentation performs proper co ordination between machines Layer 4: Transport Delivery of data between computers (end-to-end). Layer 3: Network Data routing across a network. Layer 2: Data Link Reliable transmission over physical medium. Layer 1: Physical - Transmission of bits between two nodes.

Example 2: TCP/IP Architecture

Model employed by the Internet.
TCP/IP Application Transport Internet Network Access Application Presentation Session Transport Network Data link

ISO OSI

Physical

Physical

TCP/IP Protocol Architecture

Routing Technologies
Computer Networks may use the following routing technologies: 1. Circuit Switching 2. Packet Switching 3. Message Switching

Circuit Switching
A physical circuit is established between two machines. Once the connection is established, the data transfer takes place and then the connection is released. The data transfer rate is high but error prone.

Packet Switching
Data is divided into small, fixed size packets. Each packet contains the address of destination. All the intermediate machines inspect the address and route it to the right machine. If any packet is missing, the destination machine can request the source machine to retransmit it.

Message Switching
Message as a whole is transmitted. Each message contains the address of the destination. Message switching N/W is Store and Forward N/W. Once the message arrives at the intermediate machine, it is stored in it completely and transmitted when the line is free.