Re He 2

DIGITAL ELECTRONICS & MICROPROCESSORS
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E • Last Session …..
S – Fundamental of Digital Electronics
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N • This Session ……..
2
– Binary Storage
– Boolean Algebra
– Karnaugh maps
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S
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• Last Lecture – Doubts
I – Bubble Memory
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N
2
S
E Magnetic bubble memory is a type of computer memory that
S uses a thin film of a magnetic material to hold small
S magnetized areas, known as bubbles, which each store a bit.
I
O
N Certain materials (ie. gadolinium gallium garnet) are magnetizable
easily in only one direction. A film of these materials can be
2 created so that it's magnetizable in an up-down direction. The
magnetic fields tend to stick together, so you get a pattern that is
kind of like air bubbles in water squished between glass, half with
the north pole facing up, half with the south, floating inside the
film. When a vertical magnetic field is imposed on this, the areas
in opposite alignment to this field shrink to circles, or 'bubbles'.
S
E
S
S
• Last Lecture – Assignment 1.1
I – Gray Code
O
N
2
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E
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O
N
2
S Binary Storage and Registers

E • A binary cell
S
S – two stable state
I – store one bit of information
O – examples: flip-flop circuits, ferrite cores, capacitor
N
• A register
2 – a group of binary cells
– AX in x86 CPU
• Register Transfer
– a transfer of the information stored in one register to
another
– one of the major operations in digital system
– an example
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Transfer of information
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2
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E Computer Implementation
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S • Gates or logical gates
I – Integrated circuits constructed from transistor
O switches and other electronic components
N
– VLSI: very large-scale integration
2
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E Boolean Operators
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S • AND A B C
I
– Result TRUE if and only if both input 0 0 0
O
N operands are true 0 1 0
– C=AB 1 0 0
2 1 1 1
• INCLUSIVE-OR
– Result TRUE if any input operands are A B C
true 0 0 0
– C=A+B 0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
S
E Boolean Operators
S
S • NOT
I
– Result TRUE if single input value is FALSE
O
N – C=A
2
A C
0 1
1 0
S
E Boolean Algebra Implementation
S
S • Single type of gate appropriately combined
I • 2 possibilities
O – NAND gate: AND operation followed by a NOT operation
N – NOR gate: INCLUSIVE-OR followed by a NOT operation
Note:  indicates a NOT operation

S
E Boolean algebra
S
S
I  George Boole (1815-1864)
O
N  Boolean values
2  Boolean operations
 Boolean functions
S
E What is an algebra?
S
S
• Term from Hisab al-jabr w'al-
I
O muqabala by al-Khwarizmi (~780-
N 850, Baghdad)
• Consists of
2 – a set of values
(e.g., the integers)
– a set of functions
• multiplication
• addition
S
Boolean Algebra
E
S
 Mathematics of logical expression is the tool to reduce the
S
complicated expressions.
I
O  Introduced by George Boole in 1854 and known today as Boolean
N Algebra.
 The rules of Boolean Algebra is simple and straightforward, can
2 be applied to any logical expression.
 Digital circuits need to be as simple as possible.
 Complex logical expressions should be reduced to simpler
expressions, however, produce same results under all conditions.
 Simpler expressions can be implemented with simpler circuits,
which are cost effective.
S POSTULATES
E
The most common postulates used to formulate various algebraic structures are:
S
S Closure : A Set S is closed with respect to a binary operator if , for every pair of
I elements of S ,the binary operator specifies a rule for obtaining a unique element of S.
O Associative Law : A binary operator “*" on a set S is said to be associative whenever
N (A * B) * C = A * (B * C) for all A,B,C belongs to S
2 Commutative: A binary operator “*“ on a set S is said to be commutative whenever

A*B = B* A for all A,B belongs to S
Identity Element: A set S is said to have an identity element with respect to a binary
operation * on S if there exists an element eε S with the property
e*x = x*e = x for every xε S
Inverse: A set S having an identity element e with respect to a binary operator * is

said to have an inverse whenever, for every xε S , there exists an element yεS such that
x*y = e
Distributive law: If * and . Are two binary operators on a set S, * is said to be
distributed over . Whenever
x*(y.z) = (x*y).(x*z)
S
E POSTULATES & OPERATOR ?
S
S
Binary Operator + defines addition
I Additive identity - ZERO (0)
O
N The additive inverse defines subtraction.
2
Binary Operator • defines multiplication
Multiplicative identity - ONE (1)
The multiplicative inverse of a = 1/a defines division
The only distributive law applicable is that of • over + :
a.(b+c) = (a.b)+(a.c)
S
POSTULATES – Boolean Algebra
E
S Boolean Algebra is an algebraic structure defined on a set of
S
elements is together with two binary operations, the product (or
I
O
meet) and the sum (or join) provided the following Huntington
N postulates are satisfied
2
3. a. Closure with respect to the operator +
b. Closure with respect to the operator x
6. a. An identity element with respect to + is 0 : x + 0 = 0 + x

b. An identity element with respect to . is 1 : x . 1 = 1 . x = x
9. a. Commutative with respect to + : x + y = y + x

b. Commutative with respect to . : x . y = y . x
S
E POSTULATES – Boolean Algebra
S
S
I 1. a. . is distributive over + : x(y + z) = xy + xz
O b. + is distributive over . : x + (yz) = (x + y)(x + z)
N
• For every element x € B, there exists an element x' € B
2 (complement of x) such that:
a. x + x' = 1
b. x . x' = 0
6. There exists at least two elements x, y B such that x = y.
S
E
S Brain Storming ……
S
I
O
N ♣Difference Arthemetic expression & Boolean expression ?
2 ♣Two Valued Boolean Algebra?

S Two Valued Boolean Algebra

E
A two valued Boolean Algebra is defined on a set of two
S
elements, B = { 0, 1 }, with rules for the two binary operators +
S
I and .
O
N x y xy x y x+y
0 0 0 0 0 0 x x'
2 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0
1 1 1 1 1 1
These rules are exactly the same as the AND, OR, &
NOT operations, respectively.
S
E Boolean Theorems
S
S
I • A+A = A • (AB)+(AB') = A
O
N • AA = A • (A+B)(A+B') = A
• A+A' = 1 • (AB)+(AB'C) = (AB)+(AC)
2 • AA’ = 0 • (A+B)(A+B'+C) = (A+B)(A+C)
• A+1 = 1 • (AB)+(A'C)+(BC) = (AB)+(A'C)
• A·0=0 • (A+B)(A'+C)(B+C) = (A+B)(A'+C).
• A+(AB) = A • A+(A'B) = A+B
• A(A+B) = A • A(A'+B) = AB
S Name OR AND
E Identity (Postulate 2) 0+x=x 1x=x
S Complement (Postulate 5) x + x' = 1 x x' = 0

S
Idempotency (Theorem 1) x+x=x xx=x
I
O Null Element (Theorem 2) x+1=1 x0=0
N
Involution (Theorem 3) (x')' = x
2 Commutativity (Postulate 3) x+y=y+x xy=yx
Associativity (Theorem 4) (x + y) + z = x + (y + z) (x y) z = x (y z)
Distributivity (Postulate 4) x + (y z) = (x + y)(x + z) x (y + z) = xy + xz
De Morgan's (Theorem 5) (x + y)' = x' y' (x y)' = x' + y'
Absorption (Theorem 6) x + xy = x x (x + y) = x
Reduction x + x'y = x + y x (x' + y) = x y
Combining x y + x y' = x (x + y)(x + y') = x

S
E
S
S
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O
N
2
S Positive and Negative Logic

E
• In positive logic systems, a high voltage is associated with a logic 1, and a low
S voltage with a logic 0.
S
– positive logic is just one of two conventions that can be used to associate a
I
logic value with a voltage
O
– sometimes it is more convenient to use the opposite convention
N
• In logic diagrams that use negative logic, a polarity indicator is used to
indicate the correct logical interpretation for a signal.
2
X X
Y X×Y X+Y
Y
• Circuits commonly use a combination of positive and negative logic.

S
E DUALITY
S
An important principle in the boolean algebra system is that of duality.
S
I Any valid expression you can create using the postulates and theorems
O of boolean algebra remains valid if you interchange the operators and
N constants appearing in the expression.
 Specifically, if you exchange the and + operators and swap the 0 and 1
2 values in an expression, you will wind up with an expression that obeys
all the rules of boolean algebra.
This does not mean the dual expression computes the same values, it
only means that both expressions are legal in the boolean algebra
system.
S
E
S ASSIGNMENT 2.1 ?????????
S
I
O
N Now show that the Huntington postulates
2 are valid for the set B = { 0, 1 } and the
two binary operators defined above.
With Proof …..
S
E
S Session Continues With ……….
S
I
O
N  Basic Definition
2  Boolean Function & Expression

 Sum of Products – Minterm
 Products of Sum – Maxterm
 Karanaugh Map
S
E
S Term A term is a collection of variables, e.g. ABCD.
S
I Constant A constant is a value or quantity which has a fixed
O meaning. In conventional algebra the constants include all
N integers and fractions. In Boolean algebra there are only two
possible constants, one and zero. These two constants are used
2 to describe true and false, up and down, go and not go etc.
Variable A variable is a quantity which changes by
taking on the value of any constant in the algebraic
system. At any one time the variable has a particular
value of constant. There are only two values of constants
in the system- therefore a variable can only be zero or
one. Variables are denoted by letters.
S
Literal A literal is a variable or its complement
E
S Minterm Also known as the standard product or canonic product
S term. This is a term where each variable is used once and once
I only.
O
N
Maxterm Also known as the standard sum or canonic sum term.
2 This is a term where each variable is used once and once only.
Standard Sum of products form Also known as the minterm

canonic form or canonic sum function. A function in the form of
the " sum " (OR) of minterms,e.g:
S
Standard product of sums form Also known as the maxterm
E
S canonic form or canonic product function. A function in the form
S of the " product " (AND) of maxterms,
I e.g:
O
N
2 Truth table The name "truth table" comes from a similar table
used in symbolic logic, in which the truth or falsity of a statement
is listed for all possible proposition conditions. The truth table
consists of two parts; one part comparising all combinations of
values of the variables in a statement (or algebraic expression),
the other part containing the values of the statement for each
combination.
S
The truth table is useful in that it can be used to verify
E
S Boolean identities.
S
I
O
N
2
S
E
S
S
I Adjacent cells Consider the following map. The function
O plotted is
N
If two occupied cells of a Karnaugh are adjacent, horizontally

or vertically (but not diagonally) then one variable is
redundant.
S BOOLEAN FUNCTIONS
E
S A binary variable can take the value of 0 and 1.A boolean
S function is an expression formed with binary variables, the two
I binary operators OR and AND, the unary operator NOT,
O parentheses, equal sign.For a given value of the variables, the
N
function can be either 0 or 1.
2
Example:F1 = xyz‘
F1 = 1
if x = 1 and y = 1 and z' = 1;

otherwise F1 = 0
S
E A Boolean function may also be represented in a truth
S table.to represent a function in a truth table, we need 2n
S combinations of 1's and 0's of the n binary variables.
I
O F2 = x + y'z F2 = 1 if x = 1 or if y = 0, while z = 1
N x y z F1 F2 F3 F4
F3 = x'y'z + x'yz + xy‘ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 1 1 1
2 F4 = xy' + x'z 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 1 1
1 0 1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 1 0 0
1 1 1 0 1 0 0
A boolean function may be transformed from an algebraic

expression into a logic diagram composed of AND, OR, NOT
gates.
S
E Minterm & Maxterm
S
S
I
x y z Minterm Designation Maxterm Designation
O
N 0 0 0 x' y' z' m0 x+y+z M0
0 0 1 x' y' z m1 x + y + z' M1
2 0 1 0 x' y z' m2 x + y' + z M2
0 1 1 x' y z m3 x + y' + z' M3
1 0 0 x y' z' m4 x' + y + z M4
1 0 1 x y' z m5 x' + y + z' M5
1 1 0 x y z' m6 x' + y' + z M6
1 1 1 xyz m7 x' + y' + z' M7

S
E A BOOLEAN function may be expressed algebraically from a
S given truth table by forming a MINTERM for each combination of
S the variables which produces a 1 in the function, than taking the
I OR of all those terms.
O
N Functions of three variables :
x y z function f1 function f2
2
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 1
S Complement
E
S Read from the truth table by forming a MINTERM for each
S
combination that produces a 0 in the function and then ORing
I
those terms.
O
N
Read from the truth table by forming a MINTERM for each
2 combination that produces a 0 in the function and then ORing
those terms.
f1' = x'y'z' + x'yz' + x'yz + xy'z +xyz' If we take the
complement of f1' we obtain the function f1.
f1 = (x+y+z) (x+y'+z) (x+y'+z) (x'+y+z') (x'+y'+ +z)

= m0 . m2 . m3 . m5 . m6
S
NOTE
E
S Any boolean function can be expressed as a sum of minterms.
S ( SUM - ORing of terms )
I 
Any boolean function can be expressed as a product of
O
N
MAXTERMS ( product - AND ing of terms)
Procedure for obtaining the product of MAXTERMs from the
2 truth table is:
* Form a maxterm for each combination of the
variables which produces a 0 in the function.
* Form the AND of all those maxterms.
BOOLEAN functions expressed as a SUM of MINTERMS or
PRODUCT of MAXTERMS are said to be in CANONICAL
FORM.
S
CONVERSION BETWEEN CANONICAL FORMS
E
S Consider the function F ( A, B, C ) = ( 1, 4, 5, 6, 7 )
S F '( A,B, C ) = ( 0, 2, 3 )
I
O If we take the complement of F ' by the De Morgan's theorem, we
N obtain F in a different form:
2 F ( m0 + m2 + m3 )' = m0' . m2'. m3' = M0.M2.M3 = ( 0, 2, 3 )
m'j = Mj
To convert from one canonical form to another:

interchange the symbols
list those numbers missing from the original form.
S Karnaugh Maps
E
S • A Karnaugh Map is a form of truth table suitable for
S “automatic” minimization using algebraic rule T10, or the
I Distributive Law
O
N
• A Karnaugh Map (K-Map) is just a truth table drawn so that
truth table “rows” (minterms) that differ by 1 variable are
2 physically adjacent!
• This makes it easy to visually eliminate the variable that are
different and combine the minterms
• In fact K-Maps are also drawn so that higher-order terms
that differ by one variable are also adjacent
– So you could collapse pairs of higher-order terms too
– E.g. xy + x’y = y
S Karnaugh Maps
E
S • Pictoral form of a truth table
S
I • Provides simple procedure for simplifying boolean functions
O
N • Uses human ability to recognize complex patterns
2 • Not assured of finding the minimal representation
A Karnaugh Map is a diagram made up of squares.

Each square represents a minterm. A function is represented
by placing a 1 in each square which represents the minterms
of the function.
S
Since functions can be represented by a sum of product form
E
S of minterms, any function can be shown in the map buy
S placing each a 1 in each square which represents a minterm
I in the function.
O
N EXAMPLE: Draw the map for f = X + Y
2 1. Determine which minterms are needed by using truth table.
XY f = X + Y minterm
0 0 0 m0
0 1 1 m1
1 0 1 m2
1 1 1 m3
S
E
S 2. Draw the map and place a 1 in each square for required
S minterms. Y
I Y
O X 1
N
1
0
2
X 1 1 1
f = X + Y = m1 + m2 + m3 = X´ Y + X Y´ + X Y
S Use the 2-Variable Karnaugh Map

E for Minimization
S
S Example: Given f (X,Y) = ∑ (0, 2)
I
O Find: Simplified sum of products
N
Y Y
2
X
m0 m1
X m2 m3
S 2-Variable Karnaugh Map

E
S
S 1. Place the 1’s corresponding to the minterms on
I the map.
O f (X,Y) = ∑ (0, 2)
N
Y Y
2
X
1 0
X 1 0

E
S
S 2. Now group the 1’s into columns or rows; in this case
I we can group them in the first column.
O
N f (X,Y) = ∑ (0, 2)
Y Y
2
X
1 0
X 1 0
3. This column is Y´ so the simplified function f (X,Y) = Y´


E
S
S Example 2: Given f (X,Y) = ∑ (0, 2, 3)
I
N
Y Y
2
X
m0 m1
X m2 m3

E
S
S Example 3: Given f (X,Y) = ∑ (0, 1)
I
N
Y Y
2
X
m0 m1
X m2 m3
S
E Three Variable Map
S
S m0 m1 m3 m2
I m4 m5 m7 m6
O
Y
N
YZ
2 X 00 01 11 10
0 X´ Y´ Z´ X´ Y´ Z X´ Y Z X´ YZ´
X 1 X Y´ Z´ XY´Z XYZ X Y Z´
Z
S Three Variable Map

E
S There are 2N = 23 = 8 squares.
S
I The minterms are arranged so that only one variable
O changes from 0 to 1 or from 1 to 0 as you move from
N square to square in the vertical or horizontal direction.
2 For any two adjacent squares, only one literal changes
from complemented to non-complemented (normal).
From this property the left and right ends of the map
are “adjacent.”
S Combining terms on the Karnaugh Map simplifies Boolean functions.

E
S Example: combine adjacent squares for X´ Y´ Z and XY´Z
S XÝ´ Z + XY´Z = Y´ Z ( X´ + X) = Y´ Z · 1 = Y´ Z
I
O Example: Combine adjacent squares for X Y´Z´ and X YZ´
N
XY´Z´ + X YZ´ = X Z´ ( Y´ + Y) = X Z´ · 1 = X Z´
2
Y
YZ
X 00 01 11 10
0 XÝ´Z´ X´ Y´ Z X´ Y Z X´ Y Z´
X 1 X Y´Z´ X Y´ Z XYZ X YZ´
Z
S
E Example: Simplify
S f = XÝ´ Z´ + X Y Z + XÝ´ Z + X´ Y Z
S
I Y
O
N YZ
X 00 01 11 10
2
1 1 1
0
1
X 1
Z
f = XÝ´ + Y Z
S
E Even if the function is not in its simplest form, we can still
S use the map to simplify it further.
S
I Example: Simplify f = X´ Y´ + Y´ Z + X´ Z + X Y Z
O
Y
N
YZ
2 X 00 01 11 10
0 1 1 1
X 1 1 1
Z
f = Z + X´ Y´ (by further grouping of minterms)

E
S
S Example: Given f (X,Y,Z) = ∑ (0, 2, 3, 4, 7)
I
N
2 YZ Y
X
m0 m1 m3 m2
m4 m5 m7 m6
X
Z

E
S
S Example: Given f (X,Y,Z) = ∑ (0, 2, 3, 4, 7)
I
O Simplified sum of products: f = YZ + YZ + XY
N
2 YZ Y
X
1 0 1 1
1 0 1 0
X
Z
S Truth Table
E
S f (X,Y,Z) = ∑ (0, 2, 3, 4, 7)
S
I Simplified sum of products: f = Y´Z´ + YZ + XÝ
O The truth table for f:
N
X Y Z f
2 0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1
S
E
S f (X,Y,Z) = ∑ (0, 2, 3, 4, 7)
S = Y´Z´ + YZ + XÝ
I
O Y
N
Z
2
Y f
Z
X
Y

E
S
S Example 2: Given f (X,Y,Z) = ∑ (2, 3, 4, 5)
I
N
2 YZ Y
X
m0 m1 m3 m2
m4 m5 m7 m6
X
Z

E
S
S Example 2: Given f (X,Y,Z) = ∑ (1, 2, 5, 6,
I 7)
O
N Find: Simplified sum of products
2 YZ Y
X
m0 m1 m3 m2
m4 m5 m7 m6
X
Z
S
E
Four Variable Map
S
S Y
I YZ
O WX 00 01 11 10
N m0 m1 m3 m2 00
2 m4 m5 m7 m6
01
m12 m13 m15 m14 X
m8 m9 m11 m10 11 w x y´z
W
W xý
10
´z
Z
S
E
Four Variable Map
S
S N = 4 variables
I
2N = 24 = 16 square (minterms)
O
N
Row and column are numbered using a reflected-code
2 sequence. The minterm number can be obtained by
concatenation of the row and column number .
Example: Row 4 = 10, Column 2 = 01 giving

1001 = 9 decimal for W X´ Y´ Z.
S Y
E
S YZ
00 01 11 10
S
I 00 wxý´z´ 1 1 w´xý z´
O
N 01
X
2 11
W wxý´z
10 ´
1 1 wxý´z
Notice that top and bottom edges and right and left edges are
“adjacent.”
S 1 square = a term with 4 literals

E 2 square = a term with 3 literal
S
4 square = a term with 2 literals
S
I
8 square = a term with 1 literal
16 square = a function equal to 1 Y
O
N YZ
WX 00 01 11 10
2
00
01
X
11
W
10
Z
S
E Simplify: f (W, X, Y, Z) = W X´ Z + W X Z + W´ Y Z
S Y
S
I YZ
O WX 00 01 11 10
N
00
2 01
X
11
W
10
f=WZ+YZ
Z
f = Z ( W + Y)
S Simplify: f (W, X, Y, Z) = ∑ ( 0, 1, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 12, 13, 14)

E Y
S YZ
S 00 01 11 10
I WX
O 00
N
01
2 X
11
W
10
f = Y´ + WZ´ + XZ´ Z
8 square 4 square 4 square

S Simplify: f = W´ X´ Y´ + XÝ Z´ + W´ X Y Z´ + W X´ Y´
E
S Y
S
YZ
I
WX 00 01 11 10
O
N 00
2 01
X
11
10
Z
f = X´ Z´ + X´ Y´ + W´ Y Z´
S
Example: 4-variable Karnaugh Map
E
S
S • Each value of the cell corresponds to value in the truth
I table: ABCD
O 0000 0
0001 1
N 0010 2
0011 3
2 0100
0101
4
5
0110 6
0111 7
1000 8
1001 9
1010 10
1011 11
1100 12
1101 13
1110 14
1111 15

E f(A,B,C,D) = A’B’C’D’+A’BC’D’+A’BC’D+ A’BCD+AB’C’D’+ABC’D’+ABC’D+ABCD
S
S
I ABCD f(A,B,C,D)
0000 1
O 0001 0
N 0010 0
0011 0
2 0100 1
0101 1
0110 0
0111 1
1000 1
1001 0
1010 0
1011 0
1100 1
1101 1
1110 0
1111 1
S Five Variable Map

E A=0 A=1
S
S DE D D
I BC
O 0 1 3 2 6 7 5 4
N
4 5 7 6 20 21 23 22
2
C
12 13 15 14 28 29 31 30
B 8 9 11 10 24 25 27 26
•1
E E
Six Variable Map
S
EF AB=00 E AB=01 E
E
S CD
S
I
O D
N
C
2
F F
AB=10 AB=11
S
E
S ASSIGNMENT 2.2 ?????????
S
I Simplify the boolean function :
O
N 1. F(A,B,C,D,E)=∑(0,1,4,5,16,17,21,25,29)
2 3. F= A’B’CE’+A’B’C’D’+B’D’E’+B’CD’+CDE’+BDE’
4. What is Prime Implicant & Essential Prime Implicant ?
S
E
S Next Session Contains …….
S
I
O Don’t Care Conditions
N
Nand & Nor Implementation
2 Exclusive or Function
Combinational Logic …….

Re He 2

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Re He 2

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DIGITAL ELECTRONICS & MICROPROCESSORS

S Binary Storage and Registers

Note:  indicates a NOT operation

2 Commutative: A binary operator “*“ on a set S is said to be commutative whenever

Inverse: A set S having an identity element e with respect to a binary operator * is

6. a. An identity element with respect to + is 0 : x + 0 = 0 + x

9. a. Commutative with respect to + : x + y = y + x

2 ♣Two Valued Boolean Algebra?

S Two Valued Boolean Algebra

E Identity (Postulate 2) 0+x=x 1x=x

S Complement (Postulate 5) x + x' = 1 x x' = 0

2 Commutativity (Postulate 3) x+y=y+x xy=yx

Distributivity (Postulate 4) x + (y z) = (x + y)(x + z) x (y + z) = xy + xz

De Morgan's (Theorem 5) (x + y)' = x' y' (x y)' = x' + y'

Reduction x + x'y = x + y x (x' + y) = x y

Combining x y + x y' = x (x + y)(x + y') = x

S Positive and Negative Logic

• Circuits commonly use a combination of positive and negative logic.

2  Boolean Function & Expression

Standard Sum of products form Also known as the minterm

If two occupied cells of a Karnaugh are adjacent, horizontally

if x = 1 and y = 1 and z' = 1;

A boolean function may be transformed from an algebraic

0 0 1 x' y' z m1 x + y + z' M1

2 0 1 0 x' y z' m2 x + y' + z M2

0 1 1 x' y z m3 x + y' + z' M3

1 0 0 x y' z' m4 x' + y + z M4

1 0 1 x y' z m5 x' + y + z' M5

1 1 0 x y z' m6 x' + y' + z M6

1 1 1 xyz m7 x' + y' + z' M7

f1 = (x+y+z) (x+y'+z) (x+y'+z) (x'+y+z') (x'+y'+ +z)

2 F ( m0 + m2 + m3 )' = m0' . m2'. m3' = M0.M2.M3 = ( 0, 2, 3 )

To convert from one canonical form to another:

A Karnaugh Map is a diagram made up of squares.

2 1. Determine which minterms are needed by using truth table.

S Use the 2-Variable Karnaugh Map

S 2-Variable Karnaugh Map

S 2-Variable Karnaugh Map

3. This column is Y´ so the simplified function f (X,Y) = Y´

S 2-Variable Karnaugh Map

S 2-Variable Karnaugh Map

S Three Variable Map

S Combining terms on the Karnaugh Map simplifies Boolean functions.

X 1 X Y´Z´ X Y´ Z XYZ X YZ´

S 3-Variable Karnaugh Map

S 3-Variable Karnaugh Map

S 3-Variable Karnaugh Map

S 3-Variable Karnaugh Map

Example: Row 4 = 10, Column 2 = 01 giving

S 1 square = a term with 4 literals

S Simplify: f (W, X, Y, Z) = ∑ ( 0, 1, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 12, 13, 14)

8 square 4 square 4 square

S 4-Variable Karnaugh Map

S Five Variable Map

Combinational Logic …….

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