CONCEPT OF PESTS: Pests are organisms that are nuisance or damaging to i/ Crops ii/ Livestock iii/ Humans and/or

iv/ Land fertility PART III: WEEDS AS PESTS

Concept

of Weeds as pests: Weeds are plants growing where they are not wanted. They interfere with desirable associated crop plants. are not as spectacular as plant diseases and insects in their manner of crop destruction, but they cost farmers as much as both insects and diseases combined.

Weeds

i/ These three kinds of pests together cost damages to agriculture. They can operate separately or dependently ii/ Weeds are members of the plant kingdom. They are recognized worldwide as undesirable economic pests. iii/ However, the value of any plant as weed is determined basically by the perceptions of its valuers. Plants considered weeds in some regions may not in others.

v/ The combined effect of all negative plant interactions is called negative interference. vi/ Between weeds and crops the interference includes competition, allelopathy and parasitism

v/ Many weeds are also hosts for diseasecausing organisms e.g. some of the fungal diseases that infect food crops spent part of their life cycles on weeds that typically grow near the crops. vi/ Many weeds can poison livestock if eaten during grazing.

 Weeds are plants that originated under a natural environment and, in response to imposed or natural conditions, are now interfering associates of crops and human activity. Interference To have undesirable effects either to delay, hinder, or obstruct the natural or desired cause of growing crop plants. The interference can be inform of : a/ Competition, b/ Allelopathy, c/ Parasitism and d/ Epiphytic behavior

b/ Allelopathy: It is a type of negative interference that occurs when one plant produces and releases chemicals into the environments (air and soil) which are deleterious to the growth and development of another plant.

 Direct losses include: i/ Reduction in yield due to competition by weeds with crop plants.

Interference with crop growth by competing for essential resources (e.g. light, water, mineral nutrients, and space) for growth and development. These result in yield losses.

Weeds may delay drying of grains Slow down harvest operations

Delay in harvest can result in increased postharvest losses as pests and disease infestations may set in. iv/ Losses of livestock due to poisonous weeds or chemicals used in weed control.

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Classification of Weeds

1.

Germination requirements fulfilled in many environments

Such requirements include: a) Water b) Oxygen c) Temperature d) Light

3.

Dual modes of reproduction by seed and by vegetative reproduction. Discontinuous germination (internally controlled) and great longevity of seed.

4.

Dormant seeds: Innate dormancy: Seed is dormant when shed from the plant. Could be due to genetic control, immature seed embryo, not fully developed when shed from the plant. Induced dormancy: Seed develops dormancy after exposure to environmental stimulus eg. Temperature extremes, drought elevated.

5.

Continuous seed production for as long as growing conditions permit.

Self compatibility. Weeds seed mimicry. Cross-pollination by unspecialized visitors or wind. Very high seed output in favourable environmental circumstances.

6. 7. 8.

9.

10.

Special adapted seed dispersal mechanism Adaptations for short and long distance dispersal. Agents for dispersal: Wind, water, animals, man, explosive mechanism
Production of some seed in wide range of environmental conditions: tolerance and plasticity. Tolerance: Ability to evolve different strategies for exploiting environmental resources.

11.

Plasticity: It is the capacity for phenotypic adjustment in morphological characteristics and physiological responses under charging conditions.
12.

Vigorous vegetative reproduction of regeneration from fragments (perennial) eg. stolons, rhizomes, tubers, bulbs, corms, cormels, stems, roots Brittleness hence not easily drawn from soil.

13.

14.

Parasitism
Root/stem parasitic weeds Root parasitic weeds are obligate parasites because because require a host for the chemical stimulant necessary for germination. Stem parasitic weeds are hemiparasites. They attach themselves to the stem of host plants by means of haustoria and draw minerals and water from the host plants.

15.

Adaptations that repel grazing such as spines or chemicals that impart bad odour to herbivores. Difficult to control and found everywhere.

16.