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demonstrates the typical
appearance of a
bronchopneumonia with areas
of tan-yellow consolidation.
•Remaining lung is dark red
because of marked pulmonary
congestion.
•Bronchopneumonia (lobular
pneumonia) is characterized
by patchy areas of pulmonary
consolidation.
•These areas become almost
confluent in the left lower lobe
on the bottom left of the
photograph.The areas of
consolidation are firmer than
the surrounding lung.
•This radiograph demonstrates patchy infiltrates consistent with a
bronchopneumonia from a bacterial infection.
•Typical organisms include Streptococcus pneumoniae,
Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Hemophilus
influenzae, Klebsiella pneumoniae, among others.
•Here is another example of a
bronchopneumonia.
•The lighter areas that appear to
be raised on cut surface from the
surrounding lung are the areas of
consolidation of the lung.
•At higher magnification, the
pattern of patchy distribution of a
bronchopneumonia is seen.
•The consolidated areas here
very closely match the pattern of
lung lobules (hence the term
"lobular" pneumonia).
•A bronchopneumonia is
classically a "hospital acquired"
pneumonia seen in persons
already ill from another disease
process.
•Typical bacterial organisms
include: Staphylococcus aureus,
Klebsiella, E. coli, Pseudomonas.
•This bronchopneumonia is more
subtle, but there are areas of
lighter tan consolidation.
•The hilum is seen at the lower
right with radiating pulmonary
arteries and bronchi.
•Many bronchopneumonias follow
an earlier viral pneumonia,
particularly in older persons in the
winter months when influenza is
more common.
•This is a lobar pneumonia in which
consolidation of the entire left upper
lobe has occurred.
•This pattern is much less common
than the bronchopneumonia pattern.
•In part, this is due to the fact that
most lobar pneumonias are due to
Streptococcus pneumoniae
(pneumococcus) and for decades,
these have responded well to
penicillin therapy so that advanced,
severe cases are not seen as
frequently.
•However, pneumoccoci, like most
other bacteria, are developing more
resistance to antibiotics.
•Severe pneumococcal pneumonia
still occurs, even in young to middle
aged persons (not just the very young
and the very old) and has a mortality
rate of 20%!
•A closer view of the lobar
pneumonia demonstrates the
distinct difference between the
upper lobe and the consolidated
lower lobe.
•Radiographically, areas of
consolidation appear as
infiltrates.
•The pleural surface at the lower left
demonstrates areas of yellow-tan
purulent exudate.
•Pneumonia may be complicated by a
pleuritis. Initially, there may just be an
effusion into the pleural space.
•There may also be a fibrinous
pleuritis. However, bacterial
infections of lung can spread to the
pleura to produce a purulent pleuritis.
•A collection of pus in the pleural
space is known as empyema.
•Seen here are two lung
abscesses, one in the upper lobe
and one in the lower lobe of this
left lung.
•An abscess is a complication of
severe pneumonia, most typically
from virulent organisms such as
S. aureus.
•Abscesses are complications of
aspiration, where they appear
more frequently in the right
posterior lung.
•Seen here are lung abscesses
grossly in which the purulent
exudate has drained following
sectioning to reveal the abscess
cavities.
•Abscesses can be a source for
septicemia and are difficult to
treat.
•This is an abscessing bronchopneumonia in which several abscesses with
irregular, rough-surfaced walls are seen within areas of tan consolidation.
•Lung abscesses, if large enough, will contain liquefied necrotic material
and purulent exudate that often results in an air-fluid level by chest
radiograph in the abscess.
•At the left the alveoli are filled with a neutrophilic exudate that corresponds
to the areas of consolidation seen grossly with the bronchopneumonia.
•This contrasts with the aerated lung on the right of this photomicrograph.
•At higher magnification can be seen a patchy area of alveoli that are
filled with inflammatory cells.
•The alveolar structure is still maintained, which is why a pneumonia
often resolves with minimal residual destruction or damage to the lung.
•At high magnification, the alveolar exudate of mainly neutrophils is seen.
•The surrounding alveolar walls have capillaries that are dilated and filled with
RBC's.
•Such an exudative process is typical for bacterial infection.
•This exudate gives rise to the productive cough of purulent yellow sputum
seen with bacterial pneumonias.
•More virulent bacteria and/or more severe pneumonias can be
associated with destruction of lung tissue and hemorrhage.
•Here, alveolar walls are no longer visible because there is early
abscess formation. There is also hemorrhage.
•At higher magnification, early abscessing pneumonia is shown.
•Alveolar walls are not clearly seen, only sheets of neutrophils.
•This more focal abscess containing a neutrophilic exudate as well as dark blue
bacterial colonies suggests aspiration or hematogenous spread of infection to the
lung.
•Aspirated material from the oral-pharyngeal region contains bacterial flora.
•Hematogenous spread of infection to lungs could occur from septicemia or from
infective endocarditis involving the right side of the heart.
•There is a localized foreign body giant cell response to the aspirated material seen here at
high magnification.
•Aspirated material may also produce inflammation from chemical irritation, as with gastric
contents.
•Almost the entire middle lobe of
this right lung is involved by a
chronic abscess as seen here on
section.
•The area of abscess is yellow
tan, and it was very firm.
•The infectious agent responsible
here was Nocardia, which is
known to produce chronic
abscessing inflammation.
This is a microscopic appearance of chronic abscessing inflammation with
large areas of pink necrotic tissue present on the left that are bordered by
granulation tissue with numerous prominent capillaries filled with blood.
An acid fast stain demonstrates a long filamentous organism in the center that is
dark red. This is typical for Nocardia.
•Here is the microscopic appearance of a viral pneumonia with interstitial lymphocytic
infiltrates.
•Note that there is no alveolar exudate.
• Thus, the patient with this type of pneumonia will probably not have a productive cough.
•The most common causes for viral pneumonia are influenza, parainfluenza, adenovirus,
and respiratory syncytial virus (RSV appears mostly in children).
•Cytomegalovirus can appear in immunocompromised hosts.
•This is respiratory syntytial virus (RSV) in a child. Note the giant cells which are part of the viral
cytopathic effect.
•The inset demonstrates a typical giant cell with a round, pink intracytoplasmic inclusion.
• RSV accounts for many cases of pneumonia in children under 2 years, and can be a cause
for death in infants 1 to 6 months of age or older.
•Here is the gross appearance of a lipid pneumonia in which there is an ill-defined, pale yellow
area on the left.
•This yellow appearance explains the term "golden" pneumonia.
•There are two main types of lipid pneumonia: endogenous and exogenous.
•This is the microscopic appearance of an exogenous lipid pneumonia in which
lipid vacuoles appear, mainly along airways, accompanied by an inflammatory
response that can contain foreign body giant cells.
•The term exogenous refers to the origin of the lipid material outside the body.
This material is aspirated into the bronchial tree.
•This is the microscopic appearance of an endogenous lipid pneumonia in which
numerous foamy lipid laden macrophages are present in alveolar spaces.
•The term endogenous refers to the origin of the lipid material from breakdown of lung
and blood, usually distal to the site of an obstructive process (such as a neoplasm, an
inhaled foreign body, or bronchiectasis). The macrophages collect to ingest the lipid
material.
•Here is the gross appearance of a
lung with tuberculosis.
•Scattered tan granulomas are
present, mostly in the upper lung
fields.
•Some of the larger granulomas have
central caseation.
•Granulomatous disease of the lung
grossly appears as irregularly sized
rounded nodules that are firm and
tan.
•Larger nodules may have central
necrosis known as caseation--a
process of necrosis that includes
elements of both liquefactive and
coagulative necrosis).
•This is another example of
granulomatous disease of the lung.
•The pattern of smaller nodules which
have a propensity for upper lobe
involvement suggests a
granulomatous process rather than
metastatic disease.
•On closer inspection, the granulomas
have areas of caseous necrosis.
•This is very extensive granulomatous
disease.
•This pattern of multiple caseating
granulomas primarily in the upper lobes is
most characteristic of secondary
(reactivation) tuberculosis.
•However, fungal granulomas
(histoplasmosis, cryptococcosis,
coccidioidomycosis) can mimic this pattern
as well.
•When there is extensive caseation
and the granulomas involve a larger
bronchus, it is possible for much of
the soft, necrotic center to drain out
and leave behind a cavity.
•Cavitation is typical for large
granulomas with tuberculosis.
•Cavitation is more common in the
upper lobes.
•There is a small tan-yellow subpleural
granuloma in the mid-lung field on the right.
In the hilum is a small yellow tan granuloma
in a hilar lymph node next to a bronchus.
•This is the "Ghon complex" that is the
characteristic gross appearance with
primary tuberculosis.
•In most persons, the granulomatous
disease will not progress.
•Over time, the granulomas decrease in
size and can calcify, leaving a focal
calcified spot on a chest radiograph that
suggests remote granulomatous disease.
•The Ghon complex is seen here at closer range.
•Primary tuberculosis is the pattern seen with initial infection with tuberculosis in
children.
•Reactivation, or secondary tuberculosis, is more typically seen in adults.
•Well-defined granulomas are seen here. They have rounded outlines.
•The one toward the center of the photograph contains several Langhans giant cells.
•Granulomas are composed of transformed macrophages called epithelioid cells along
with lymphocytes, occasional PMN's, plasma cells, and fibroblasts.
•The localized, small appearance of these granulomas suggests that the immune
response is fairly good.
•At low magnification, this photomicrograph reveals multiple granulomas.
•Granulomatous disease by chest radiograph can appear as reticulonodular densities.
•The edge of a granuloma is shown here at high magnification.
•At the upper right is amorphous pink caseous material composed of the necrotic
elements of the granuloma as well as the infectious organisms.
•This area is ringed by the inflammatory component with epithelioid cells, lymphocytes,
and fibroblasts.
•At high magnification, the granuloma demonstrates that the epithelioid macrophages are
elongated with long, pale nuclei and pink cytoplasm.
•The macrophages organize into committees called giant cells. The typical giant cell for
infectious granulomas is called a Langhans giant cell and has the nuclei lined up along one
edge of the cell.
•The process of granulomatous inflammation takes place over months to years (did you ever
hear of a committee action that was completed in a short time?)
•In order to find the mycobacteria in a tissue section, a stain for acid fast bacilli is done (AFB stain).
•The mycobacteria stain as red rods, as seen here at high magnification.
•When the immune response is poor
or is overwhelmed by an extensive
infection, then it is possible to see the
gross pattern of granulomatous
disease seen here.
•This is a "miliary" pattern of
granulomas because there are a
multitude of small tan granulomas,
about 2 to 4 mm in size, scattered
throughout the lung parenchyma.
•The miliary pattern gets its name
from the resemblence of the
granulomas to millet seeds.
•At closer range, the miliary pattern is seen throughout the lung.
•Dissemination of the infectious agent (M. tuberculosis, fungi) may produce a similar
pattern in other organs.
•This is a fungal granuloma produced by
Aspergillus.
•An infectious process is suggested by
the fact that the lesion has crossed the
fissure as though it weren't there.
• A neoplasm usually is initially impeded
by an anatomical barrier.
•This granuloma has an irregular, red
margin and a firm, tan-orange center.
•Here is another fungal granuloma.
•The lung involvement by these
fungal granulomas is more
extensive.
•Fungal infections are more
common in patients who are
immunosuppressed.
•A fungus ball composed of blue-staining hyphal elements of Aspergillus is seen
here in a bronchus.
•Fungus balls may also form when fungi colonize cavitary lesions of tuberculosis.
•Branching, septate hyphae are close-packed here and radiating outward in this
aspergilloma.
•The hyphae of Aspergillus are seen more clearly here. Aspergillus has a propensity
to invade into blood vessels.
•This well-formed granuloma has a large Langhans giant cell in the center.
•Two small spherules of Coccidioides immitis are seen in the giant cell.
•At higher magnification, the thick wall of the C. immitis spherule is seen in a giant cell in
the center of the photomicrograph.
•The spherule contains endospores. In the United States, C. immitis is endemic to the
southwest.
•These lungs appear essentially normal, but are normal-appearing because they are
the hyperinflated lungs of a patient who died with status asthmaticus.
•The cut section of the hyperinflated
lung of a patient dying in status
asthmaticus appears essentially
normal.
•This cast of the bronchial tree is formed of inspissated mucus and was coughed up by a
patient during an asthmatic attack.
•The outpouring of mucus from hypertrophied bronchial submucosal glands, the
bronchoconstriction, and dehydration all contribute to the formation of mucus plugs that can
block airways in asthmatic patients.
•Between the bronchial cartilage at the right and the bronchial lumen filled with mucus at the
left is a submucosa widened by smooth muscle hypertrophy, edema, and inflammation
(mainly eosinophils).
•These are changes of bronchial asthma.
•The peripheral eosinophil count or the sputum eosinophils can be increased during an
asthmatic attack.
•At high magnification, the numerous eosinophils are prominent from their bright red
cytoplasmic granules in this case of bronchial asthma. There are two major clinical forms of
asthma that can overlap.
•Extrinsic asthma: there is typically an association with atopy (allergies) mediated by type 1
hypersensitivity, and asthmatic attacks are precipitated by contact with inhaled allergens.
This form occurs most often in childhood.
•Intrinsic asthma: asthmatic attacks are precipitated by respiratory infections, exposure to
cold, exercise, stress, inhaled irritants, and drugs such as aspirin. Adults are most often
affected.
•This is another form of obstructive
lung disease known as
bronchiectasis.
•Bronchiectasis occurs when there is
obstruction or infection with
inflammation and destruction of
bronchi so that there is permanent
dilation.
•Once the dilated bronchi are
present, as seen here grossly in the
mid lower portion of the lung, the
patient has recurrent infections
because of the stasis in these
airways.
•Copius purulent sputum production
with cough is typical.
•A closer view demonstrates the focal area of dilated bronchi with bronchiectasis.
•Bronchiectasis tends to be localized with disease processes such as neoplasms and
aspirated foreign bodies that block a portion of the airways.
•Widespread bronchiectasis is typical for patients with cystic fibrosis who have recurrent
infections and obstruction of airways by mucus throughout the lungs.
•Bronchiectasis is seen here.
•The repeated episodes of inflammation can result in scarring, which has resulted in
fibrous adhesions between the lobes.
•Fibrous pleural adhesions are common in persons who have had past episodes of
inflammation of the lung that involve the pleura.
•With extensive involvement, the pleural space may be obliterated.
•The mid lower portion of this photomicrograph demonstrates a dilated bronchus in
which the mucosa and wall is not clearly seen because of the necrotizing inflammation
with destruction.
•This is the microscopic appearance of bronchiectasis.
•Bronchiectasis is not a specific disease, but a consequence of another disease
process that destroys airways.
•This photomicrograph demonstrates a bronchus with increased numbers of chronic
inflammatory cells in the submucosa.
•Chronic bronchitis does not have characteristic pathologic findings, but is defined
clinically as a persistent productive cough for at least three consecutive months in at
least two consecutive years.
•Most patients are smokers.
•Often, there are features of emphysema as well.
•The chest cavity is opened at
autopsy to reveal numerous large
bullae apparent on the surface of the
lungs in a patient dying with
emphysema.
•Bullae are large dilated airspaces
that bulge out from beneath the
pleura.
•Emphysema is characterized by a
loss of lung parenchyma by
destruction of alveoli so that there is
permanent dilation of airspaces.
•On cut section of the lung, the dilated
airspaces with emphysema are seen.
Although there tends to be some scarring
with time because of superimposed
infections, the emphysematous process is
one of loss of lung parenchyma, not fibrosis.
•There are two major types of emphysema:
centrilobular (centriacinar) and panlobular
(panacinar). The former involves primarily the
upper lobes while the latter involves all lung
fields, particularly the bases.
•Centrilobular emphysema occurs with loss of
the respiratory bronchioles in the proximal
portion of the acinus, with sparing of distal
alveoli.
•This pattern is most typical for
smokers.Panacinar emphysema occurs with
loss of all portions of the acinus from the
respiratory bronchiole to the alveoli.
•This pattern is typical for alpha-1-antitrypsin
deficiency.
•This is a more subtle appearance for centrilobular emphysema in which there are "dirty holes" that
appear focally where the central portions of lung acini have lost lung parenchyma while collecting
anthracotic pigment at the same time.
•This pattern is typical for smokers.
•Smokers have a greater number of neutrophils and macrophages in their alveoli.
•Smoking irritates alveolar macrophages, which in turn release neutrophil chemotactic factors, such as
interleukin 8, thus recruiting neutrophils. In addition, nicotine is chemotactic for neutrophils, and smoke
can activate the alternative complement pathway (an inflammatory cascade).
•Proteases, particularly elastase, are secreted by these neutrophils and
macrophages.
•Proteases are enzymes that are capable of digesting lung tissue and
these chemicals are responsible for the damage seen in emphysema.
•Oxidants and free radicals in smoke also inhibit the alpha-1-antitrypsin
circulating in the lung that protects alveoli from proteases.
•Chronic irritation by smoke also can lead to chronic bronchitis with excess
production of mucus.
•Smoke interferes with the ciliary action of the respiratory epithelium and
the mucus cannot be cleared.
•This predisposes the smoker to secondary and repeated infections.
•Microscopically at high magnification, the loss of alveolar walls with
emphysema is demonstrated.
•Remaining airspaces are dilated.
•Seen in the pulmonary artery to the
left lung on cut section is a large
pulmonary thromboembolus.
•Such thromboemboli typically
originate in the leg veins or pelvic
veins of persons who are immobilized.
•Other contributing factors include
trauma to the extremities,
hypercoagulable states (Trousseaus's
syndrome in patients with carcinomas;
protein C or S deficiency; use of oral
contraceptives), heart failure,
pregnancy, and older age.
•Here is a "saddle embolus" that bridges across the pulmonary artery from the heart as it
divides into right and left main pulmonary arteries.
•Such a saddle embolus is a cause for sudden death.
•This thromboembolus displays the typical gross appearance.
•The surface is somewhat irregular, and there are areas of pale tan to white admixed with
dark red areas.
•The thrombus often has the outlines of the vein in which it formed.
•Large thromboemboli can cause death.
•Medium sized thrombomboli (blocking a
pulmonary artery to a lobule or set of
lobules) can produce the lesion seen here--
a hemorrhagic pulmonary infarction,
because the patient survives.
•The infarct is wedge-shaped and based on
the pleura.
•These infarcts are hemorrhagic because,
though the pulmonary artery carrying most
of the blood and oxygen is cut off, the
bronchial arteries from the systemic
circulation (supplying about 1% of the blood
to the lungs) is not cut off.
•Here is a larger area of infarction
produced by a medium-sized
thromboembolus to the lung.
•This infarction has begun to organize
at the margins.It is also possible to
have multiple small pulmonary
thromboemboli that do not cause
sudden death and do not occlude a
large enough branch of pulmonary
artery to cause infarction.
•However, if there are lots of small
emboli, particularly if they are
showered to the lungs over a period of
time, then they collectively may block
enough small arteries to produce
pulmonary hypertension.
•A closer view of a thromboembolus filling a main pulmonary artery reveals a layered appearance,
typical of a thrombus that formed in a large vein of the pelvis or lower extremity.
•This is the microscopic appearance of a pulmonary thromboembolus in a large pulmonary
artery.
•There are interdigitating areas of pale pink and red that form the "lines of Zahn" characteristic
for a thrombus.
•These lines represent layers of red cells, platelets, and fibrin which are layed down in the
vessel as the thrombus forms.
•Here a thromboembolus is packed into a pulmonary artery.
•Over time, if the patient survives, the thromboembolus will undergo organization and
dissolution.
•Here is a small peripheral pumonary artery thromboembolus.
•Such a small PE such as this one would probably not be noticed or cause problems unless there were many
of them showered into the pulmonary circulation at once or over a period of time.
•This could lead to pulmonary hypertension.
•The fibrous bands of connective tissue across this branch of pulmonary artery indicate
organization of a remote pulmonary thromboembolus.
•If many pulmonary arteries are involved by this process, pulmonary hypertension could
result.
•Below the white arrow can be seen a fibrous band in a peripheral pulmonary artery from a
remote organized pulmonary thromboembolus.
•Note that the atheromatous plaques of the pulmonar artery intima at the right are
indicative of the effect of such embolization--pulmonary hypertension.
•This is a squamous
cell carcinoma of the
lung that is arising
centrally in the lung
(as most squamous
cell carcinomas do).
•It is obstructing the
right main bronchus.
•The neoplasm is
very firm and has a
pale white to tan cut
surface.
•These chest CT scan views above and below demonstrates a large squamous cell
carcinoma of the right upper lobe that extends around the right main bronchus and
also invades into the mediastinum and involves hilar lymph nodes.
•This is a larger squamous
cell carcinoma in which a
portion of the tumor
demonstrates central
cavitation, probably
because the tumor outgrew
its blood supply.
•Squamous cell carcinomas
are one of the more
common primary
malignancies of lung and
are most often seen in
smokers.
•This chest radiograph demonstrates a large squamous cell carcinoma of the right
upper lobe.
•This is another sqamous cell carcinoma that extends from hilum to pleura.
•The black areas represent anthracotic pigment trapped in the tumor.
•This chest radiograph demonstrates
a large 5 cm diameter squamous cell
carcinoma of the right lower lobe.
•The 1.5 cm bright opacity in the
middle of the mass is a calcified
granuloma that was seen on lateral
view to be behind the neoplasm.
•Additional calcified granulomatous
areas are medial to the mass.
•The sternal wire loops are from a
previous coronary artery bypass
procedure.
•This is the microscopic appearance of squamous cell carcinoma with nests of polygonal cells with pink
cytoplasm and distinct cell borders.
•The nuclei are hyperchromatic and angular.
•The pink cytoplasm with distinct cell borders and intercellular bridges characteristic for a squamous cell
carcinoma are seen here at high magnification.
•Such features are seen in well-differentiated tumors (those that more closely mimic the cell of origin).
•In this squamous cell carcinoma at the upper left is a squamous eddy with a keratin pearl.
•At the right, the tumor is less differentiated and several dark mitotic figures are seen.
•This is a peripheral adenocarcinoma
of the lung.
•Adenocarcinomas and large cell
anaplastic carcinomas tend to occur
more peripherally in lung.
•Adenocarcinoma is the one cell type
of primary lung tumor that occurs
more often in non-smokers and in
smokers who have quit.
•If this neoplasm were confined to the
lung (a lower stage), then resection
would have a greater chance for cure.
•The solitary appearance of this
neoplasm suggests that the tumor is
primary rather than metastatic.
•This is another type of
adenocarcinoma of lung known as
bronchioloalveolar carcinoma.
•Seen here is the multifocal variant
that appears grossly (and on chest
radiograph) as a pneumonic
consolidation.
•Most of the upper lobe toward the
right has a pale tan to grey
appearance.
•Microscopically, the bronchioloalveolar carcinoma is composed of columnar cells that proliferate along the
framework of alveolar septae.
•The cells are well-differentiated.
•These neoplasms in general have a better prognosis than most other primary lung cancers.
•Arising centrally in this lung and
spreading extensively is a small cell
anaplastic (oat cell) carcinoma.
•The cut surface of this tumor has a
soft, lobulated, white to tan
appearance.
•The tumor seen here has caused
obstruction of the main bronchus to
left lung so that the distal lung is
collapsed.
•Oat cell carcinomas are very
aggressive and often metastasize
widely before the primary tumor mass
in the lung reaches a large size.
•Here is an oat cell carcinoma which
is spreading along the bronchi.
•The speckled black rounded areas
represent hilar lymph nodes with
metastatic carcinoma.
•These neoplasms are more
amenable to chemotherapy than
radiation therapy or surgery, but the
prognosis is still poor.
•Oat cell carcinomas occur almost
exclusively in smokers.
•This is the microscopic pattern of a small cell anaplastic (oat cell) carcinoma in which small dark
blue cells with minimal cytoplasm are packed together in sheets.
•Here are two examples of a benign lung neoplasm known as a pulmonary hamartoma.
•These uncommon lesions appear on chest radiograph as a "coin lesion" that has a differential diagnosis
of granuloma and localized malignant neoplasm.
•They are firm and discreet and often have calcifications in them that also appear on radiography.
•Most are small (less than 2 cm).
•The pulmonary hamartoma is seen microscopically to be composed mostly of benign
cartilage on the right that is jumbled with a fibrovascular stroma and scattered bronchial
glands on the left.
•A hamartoma is a neoplasm in an organ that is composed of tissue elements normally
found at that site, but growing in a haphazard mass.
•Multiple variably-sized masses are
seen in all lung fields.
•These tan-white nodules are
characteristic for metastatic
carcinoma.
•Metastases to the lungs are more
common even than primary lung
neoplasms simply because so many
other primary tumors can
metastasize to the lungs.
•Even the hilar nodes in this
photograph demonstrate nodules of
metastatic carcinoma.
•The nodules are usually in the
periphery and do not cause major
obstruction.
•This chest radiograph
demonstrates a nodular pattern
resulting from multiple small
metastases to the lung from a
colonic adenocarcinoma.
• Here are larger but still
variably-sized nodules of
metastatic carcinoma in lung.
•This chest radiograph demonstrates
a nodular pattern resulting from
multiple metastases to the lung from
a colonic adenocarcinoma.
•This is the same patient as the
previous radiograph, but at a later
point in the course. (The plate and
screws in the cervical spine repaired
a pathologic fracture from metastases
•A nest of metastatic infiltrating ductal carcinoma from breast is seen in a dilated lymphatic channel in
the lung.
•Carcinomas often metastasize via lymphatics.
•Prostatic adenocarcinoma is famous for metastasizing to the lungs in a "lymphangitic" pattern in
which streaks of tumor appear between lung lobules and beneath the pleura in lymphatic spaces.
•A focus of metastatic carcinoma from breast is seen on the pleural surface of the lung.
•Such pleural metastases may lead to pleural effusions, including hemorrhagic effusions,
and pleural fluid cytology can often reveal the malignant cells.
•The dense white encircling tumor mass is
arising from the visceral pleura and is a
mesothelioma.
•These are big bulky tumors that can fill
the chest cavity.The risk factor for
mesothelioma is asbestos exposure.
•However, mesothelioma is rare even in
persons with asbestos exposure.
•Asbestosis more commonly predisposes
to bronchogenic carcinomas, increasing
the risk by a factor of five.
•Smoking increases the risk for lung
cancer by a factor of ten.
•Thus, smokers with a history of asbestos
exposure have a risk 50 fold greater
likelihood of for developing lung cancer.
•Mesotheliomas have either spindle cells or plump rounded cells forming gland-like configurations, as seen
here at high power microscopically.
•They are very difficult to diagnose cytologically.
•This is the causative agent for asbestosis.
•This long, thin object is an asbestos fiber.
•Many houses and offices still contain building materials with asbestos, particularly insulation,
so care must be taken when doing remodelling or reconstruction.
•The asbestos fiber becomes coated with iron and calcium, which is why it is often referred to
as a "ferruginous body" as seen here with an iron stain.
•Ingestion of these fibers by macrophages sets off a fibrogenic response via release of growth
factors that promote collagen deposition by fibroblasts.
•Another gross lesion typical for pneumoconioses, and asbestosis in particular, is a fibrous pleural
plaque.
•Seen here on the pleural side of the diaphragmatic leaves are several tan-white pleural plaques.
•Microscopically, the fibrous pleural plaque is composed of dense layers of collagen.
•A silicotic nodule in lung is seen here. It is composed mainly of bundles of interlacing pink
collagen.
•There is a minimal inflammatory reaction. The greater the degree of exposure to silica and
increasing length of exposure determine the amount of silicotic nodule formation and the
degree of restrictive lung disease.
• Silicosis increases the risk for lung carcinoma about 2-fold.
•Anthracotic pigment ordinarily is not fibrogenic, but in massive amounts (as in "black lung
disease" in coal miners) a fibrogenic response can be elicited to produce the "coal worker's
pneumoconiosis" seen here.
•By polarized light microscopy can be seen the etiology for most pneumoconioses (even those in
coal miners)--silica crystals.
•Here are seen bright white crystals of varying sizes.
•The silica induces a fibrogenic response by macrophages to produce the nodular foci of collagen
deposition.
•Bright white collections of polarizable crystals are seen here, but are diffuse and centered
around vascular spaces.
•This is the lung of a patient with a long history of intravenous drug use.
•Only about 1% of such persons get a significant degree of pulmonary fibrosis.
•The crystals represent talc that is used to to dilute the injected drug.
•The rounded holes that appear in the vascular spaces here in the lung are fat emboli.
•Fat embolization syndrome occurs most often following trauma with fracture of long bones
that releases fat globules into the circulation which are trapped in pulmonary capillaries.
•Cumulatively, they have the same effect as a large saddle pulmonary embolus.
•This is a rare finding that may complicate a term pregnancy at delivery.
•Seen here in a pulmonary artery branch is an amniotic fluid embolus that has layers of fetal
squames.
•Amniotic fluid embolization can have the same outcome as a large saddle pulmonary embolus.
•This is an example of hypersensitivity pneumonitis that can occur when there is an inhaled
organic dust that produces a localized for of type III hypersensitivity (Arthus) reaction from
antigen-antibody complexes.
•The symptoms of dyspnea, coughing, and fever abate when the affected person leaves the
environment where the offending antigen is located.
•There are no major long-term complications.
•One form of hypersensitivity pneumonitis is known as farmer's lung because the farmer
inhales thermophilic actinomycetes in moldy hay that set off the reaction.
•Bird dust (bird fancier's disease) and molds in air conditioners may produce similar
problems.
•The bales in this field near Sterling are of good quality and less likely to produce this
disease.
•Farmer's lung must be distinguished from "silo filler's disease" which is an acute
chemical pneumonitis due to toxic gases released from fermenting silage into the
atmosphere inside the silo (an example of which is seen here on this farm between
Edinburgh and Glasgow).
•This is an example of pulmonary fibrosis.
•Some cases of restrictive lung disease have no known etiology--this is, they are known as
idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis.
•The alveolitis that produces fibroblast proliferation and collagen deposition is progressive over
time.
•A trichrome stain highlights the collagenous connective tissue of pulmonary fibrosis in blue.
•One cause for pulmonary
intersitital fibrosis is sarcoidosis.
•In addition to increased
interstitial markings, the chest
radiograph may display
prominent hilar lymphadenopathy
(from non-caseating
granulomatous inflammation) as
shown here.
•Here is an example of diffuse alveolar
damage in which the lung is diffusely
firm and rubbery.
• Clinically, this is known as adult
respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS).
•This is the microscopic appearance of diffuse alveolar damage (DAD) in the lung.
•DAD is simply the final common pathway for a variety of severe lung injuries.
•In early DAD, there are hyaline membranes, as seen here, lining alveoli.
•Later, type II pneumonocyte proliferation and then interstitial inflammation and fibrosis are seen.
•High oxygen tensions needed to treat the hypoxia resulting from DAD and its etiologies further
potentiates this disease.
•Regardless of the etiology for restrictive lung diseases, many eventually lead to extensive
fibrosis.
•The gross appearance, as seen here in a patient with organizing diffuse alveolar damage, is
known as "honeycomb" lung because of the appearance of the irregular air spaces between
bands of dense fibrous connective tissue.
•Both restrictive and obstructive lung diseases can affect the pulmonary arterial circulation.
•The loss of normal lung parenchyma leads to pulmonary hypertension that leads to
thickening of the small arteries along with reduplication to form a plexiform lesion, as seen
here in a peripheral pulmonary artery.