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Stresses in pipe lines

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Contents

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Introduction

Steps of piping system design Stress analysis techniques

Classification of loads

Primary Vs Secondary loads Static Vs Dynamic loads Principal stresses

Applied loads which causes normal and shear stresses Theories of failure Piping codes

ASME B31.1 ASME B31.3

Contents

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Pipe Supports

Different types of supports Piping systems supports designing

Buried pipes design

Soil Mechanics Rigid Vs flexible pipes Water systems Marston load theory

4/21/12 Introduction to piping stress analysis

Pipes are the most delicate components in any process plant. It is very important to take note of all potential loads that a piping system would encounter during operation as well as during other stages in the life cycle of a process plant. Ignoring any such load while designing, erecting, hydrotesting, start-up shut-down, normal operation, maintenance etc. can lead to inadequate design and engineering of a piping system.

Stress analysis and safe design normally require appreciation of several related concepts.

Steps of piping system design

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An approximate list of the steps that would be involved is as follows: Identify potential loads. Relate each one of these loads to the stresses and strains. Decide the worst three dimensional stress state . Get the cumulative effect of all the potential, loads on the 3-D stress scenario in the piping system under consideration.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Alter piping system design to ensure that the stress pattern is within failure limits.

Stress analysis techniques

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The analysis of stresses may be carried to varying degrees of refinement. Manual systems allow for the analysis of simple systems. There are methods like chart solutions (for three-dimensional routings) and rules of thumb (for number and placement of supports) etc. involving long and tedious computations and high expense. All such methods may be classified as follows: 1. Approximate methods dealing only with special piping configurations of two-three or four-member systems . The approximate methods falling into this category are limited in scope of direct application.

Stress analysis techniques

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2. Methods restricted to square-corner, single-plane systems with two fixed ends, but without limit as to the number of members. 3. Methods adaptable to space configurations with square corners and two fixed ends. 4. Extensions of the previous methods to provide for the special properties of curved pipe by indirect means, usually a virtual length correction factor.

4/21/12 Classification of loads and failure modes

Classification of loads: A. Primary Loads. B. Secondary Loads.

Classification of failure modes: A. sudden failure due to onetime loading(attribute to primary loading) B. fatigue failure due to cyclic loading(attribute to secondary loading)

Primary Loads

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These are typically steady or sustained types of loads. Primary loads are usually force driven. Primary loads are not self-limiting. Allowable limits of primary stresses are related to ultimate tensile strength. Design requirements due to primary loads are encompassed in minimum wall thickness requirements (In codes).

Secondary Loads

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Secondary loads are usually displacement driven. Secondary loads are self-limiting. Allowable loads for secondary stresses are based upon fatigue failure modes. Secondary loads are cyclic in nature (expect settlement). Secondary application of load never produces sudden failure and sudden failure occurs after a number of applications of load.

Static vs. Dynamic loads

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Static loads are those loads applied on to the piping system so slowly that the system has time to respond, react and also to disturb the load. Hence, the system remains in equilibrium.

The dynamic load changes so quickly with time that the system will have no time to distribute the load. Hence the system develops unbalanced forces.

Types of dynamic loading

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1. Random: here the load changes unpredictably with time. The major loads covered under this type are :(a) Wind load. (b) Earthquake. 2. Harmonic: here the load changes in magnitude and direction in a sine profile. The major loads covered under this are:(a) Equipment Vibration. (b) Acoustic Vibration. 3. Pulsation: This type of loading occurs due to flow from reciprocating pumps, compressors etc.

4/21/12 Types of stresses acting on a pipe

When calculate stresses, we choose a set of orthogonal directions and define the stresses in this co-ordinate system. Types of loads according to their direction are axial , circumferential (Hoops direction) and radial

Principal stresses

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The mechanics of solids state that it would also be orientation which minimizes some other normal stress. Normal stresses for such orientation (maximum normal stress orientation) are called principal stresses, and are designated S1 (maximum), S2 and S3 (minimum). Solid mechanics also states that the sum of the three normal stresses for all orientation is always the same for any given external load.

Principal stresses

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In addition to the normal stresses, a grain can be subjected to shear stresses as well. The maximum shear stress in a 3-D state of stress can be shown to be

Use of Mohr's circle then allows calculating the two principle stresses and maximum shear stress as follows:

Applied Loads which 4/21/12 causes normal and Shear Stresses

Axial Load Internal / External Pressure Bending Load Shear Load Torsional Load

Axial Load

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A pipe may face an axial force (FL). It could be tensile or compressive.

Internal / External Pressure

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A pipe used for transporting fluid would be under internal pressure load. (Like jacketed pipe core or tubes in a Shell)

Bending Load

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The bending moment can be related to normal and shear stresses. Pipe bending is caused mainly due to two reasons: Uniform weight load and concentrated weight load

Bending Load

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Stress due to bending moment is not uniform through all the pipes cross section

Shear Load

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Shear load causes shear stresses. Shear load may be of different types. Common load is the shear force (V) acting on the cross-section of the pipe

Torsional Load

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The shear stress caused due to torsion is maximum at outer pipe radius & it is given in terms of the torsional moment and pipe dimensions.

Allowable stresses

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Allowable stresses as specified in the various codes are based on the material properties. These can be classified in two categories

Time Independent stresses Time dependent stresses

Theories of Failure

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There are various theories of failure that have been put forth. These theories differ only in the way the above mentioned function is defined. Important theories in common use are considered here

Maximum Stress Theory (Rankine Theory) Maximum Shear Theory (Tresca Theory) Octahedral Shear Theory (Von Mises Theory)

Rankine Theory

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Maximum Stress Theory (Rankine Theory) According to this theory, failure occurs when the maximum principle stress in a system is greater than the maximum tensile principle stress at yield in a specimen subjected to uni-axial tension test.

4/21/12 Maximum Shear Theory (Tresca Theory)

According to this theory, failure occurs when the maximum shear stress in a system max is greater than the maximum shear stress at yield in a specimen subjected to uni-axial tension test.

4/21/12 Octahedral Shear Theory (Von Mises Theory)

Octahedral Shear Theory (Von Mises Theory) According to this theory, failure occurs when the octahedral shear stress in a system is greater than the octahedral shear stress at yield in a specimen subjected to uniaxial tension test.

Design under Secondary Load

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A pipe designed to withstand primary loads and to avoid catastrophic failure may fall after a sufficient amount of time due to secondary cyclic load causing, fatigue failure.

The secondary loads are often cyclic in nature. The number of cycles to failure is a property of the material of construction just as yield stress is.

This number of cycles to failure is the corresponding material property important in design under cyclic loads aim at ensuring that the failure does not take place within a certain period for which the system is to be designed.

Design under Secondary Load

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Fatigue test is carried out on a specimen subjected to cycles of uni-axial tensile and compressive loads of certain amplitude. The specimen is subjected to a gradually increasing load leading to a maximum tensile load of W, then the load is removed gradually till it passes through zero and becomes gradually a compressive load of W (i.e. a load of W), then a tensile load of W and so on. Time averaged load is thus zero.

The cycles to failure are then measured; the experiments are repeated with different amplitudes of load.

Piping codes

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The most famous codes for pipe design are the ASME Codes

From the ASMEs various codes the most used are

ASME 31.1 Power piping ASME 31.3 Process piping ASME 31.9 Building services piping

ASME code

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This code was published by ASA ( American standard Association ) known as ANSI ( American national standard institute ) then its developed to the current ASME code The code is divided into several documents each is concerned with particular industry . Code is consists of:

B31.1 Power Piping B31.3 Process Piping B31.4 Pipeline Transportation Systems for Liquid Hydrocarbons and Other Liquids B31.5 Refrigeration Piping B31.8 Gas Transportation and Distribution Piping B31.9 Building Services Piping B31.11 Slurry Transportation Piping Systems.

ASME 31.1 Power piping

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This code relates particularly to piping that would be found in electrical power plants, commercial and institutional plants, geothermal plants, and central heating and cooling plants.(so its called power piping) Its used in piping known as boiler external piping as its considered part of the boiler This code cant be used in industries such as :

component covered by pressure vessel code or ASME boiler code Structural components . Tanks and instrumentation.

The code specify some useful formulas for determining either the design pressure of a particular pipe or the required wall thickness of a pipe operating at a certain pressure.

ASME 31.1 Design equations

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Where P = Internal design gage pressure [psi or kPa] The pressure is either given or solved for in the equations. S = Maximum allowable stress values in tension for the material at the design temperature [psi or kPa] E,F,A = welding efficiency , casting factor and additional thickness respectively

ASME 31.1 Limits

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The code also specify the limits for :

sustained and displacement stresses

Where : Ss = Sustained stress i = Stress Intensification factor.

Sh = Basic allowable stress at the operating temperature MA = Resultant moment due to primary loads = ( Mx + My + Mz ) 0.5

ASME 31.1 Limits cont.

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Occasional stresses

Where: So = Occasional stress.

K = Occasional load factor

Expansion stresses

Where: SA = Allowable expansion stress range

ASME 31.1 Flexibility 4/21/12 analysis behavior when its temperature changes To study the system

from ambient to operating point, so as to arrive at the most economical layout with adequate safety.

The considerations that decide the minimum acceptable flexibility on a piping configuration:
1.

The maximum allowable stress range in the system. The limiting values of forces and moments that the piping system is permitted to impose on the equipment to which it is connected. The displacements within the piping system. The maximum allowable load on the supporting structure.

2.

3.

4.

Methods of Flexibility Analysis

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There are two methods of flexibility analysis which involve manual calculations:
1.

Check as per clause 119.7.1/319.4.1 of the piping code

K DY/(L-U) 2

1.

Guided Cantilever Method

.

L= (DE/48f)1/2

ASME 31.1 Testing

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Pressure Test: After a pipe system is installed in the field, it is usually pressure tested to ensure that there are no leaks. Once a system is in operation, it is difficult, if not impossible, to repair leaks. Hydrostatic Testing: It is important to provide high point vents and low point drains in all piping systems to be hydrotested. The high point vents are to permit the venting of air, which if trapped during the hydrotest may result in fluctuating pressure levels during the test period. The drains are to allow the piping to be emptied of the test medium prior to filling with the operating fluid. pneumatic test: A preliminary pneumatic test is often applied, holding the test pressure at 25 psig to locate leaks prior to testing at the test pressure. The test pressure for pneumatic tests is to be at least 1.2 but not more than 1.5 times the design pressure.

ASME 31.3 Process piping

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The term process piping is generally considered to be the piping that one may find in chemical plants, refineries, paper mills, and other manufacturing plants. The ASME 31.3 code is arranged as 31.1 chapters and paragraphs but here the paragraph has number 300 instead of 100

Scope

The scope of this code includes all fluids. This scope specifically excludes the following: Piping with an internal design pressure between 0 and 15 psi (105 kPa) Tubes inside fired heaters Pressure vessels, heat exchangers, pumps, or compressors.

ASME 31.3 cont.

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Design criterion

The difference between ASME 31.1 and 31.3 that 31.1 is focused more on steel pipe and fittings, while 31.3 pertains more to nonmetallic pipe and fittings. The obvious reason is that process piping deals with more fluids that are corrosive to steel. In many cases, thermoplastics, thermosetting plastics, and resins will be more appropriate materials for the fluids handled in the purview of the process piping code.

Fluid Categories:

D fluids : nonflammable, nontoxic, and not damaging to human tissue. design pressure does not exceed 150 psig (1035 kPa) & design temperature is between -20F and 366F (-29C and 186C). M fluids : a single exposure to a very small quantity could lead to serious irreversible harm High pressure fluid : higher than allowed in ASME B16.5 PN420 All fluids not listed in the above categories

ASME 31.3 Design equations

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Where : tm = Minimum required wall thickness [in or mm]. t = Pressure design thickness, as determined by any of the Formulas (3a) through (3b) [in or mm]. c = Mechanical, corrosion, or erosion allowances [in or mm] S = Stress in material at the design temperature [psi or kPa]. E = Quality Factor W = Weld Joint Strength Factor. Y = A coefficient used to account for material creep

ASME 31.3 Limits

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As ASME 31.1, ASME 31.3 has limits formulas

For sustain stresses

Where :
FAX = Axial force due to sustained ( primary ) loading Mi = In-plane loading moment due to sustained ( primary ) Mo = Out-plane loading moment due to sustained ( primary ) loading. ii , io = in-plane and out plane stress intensification factors. Sh = Basic allowable stress at operating temperature.

ASME 31.3 Limits cont.

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For expansion

Where: SE = Expansion stress range MT = Range or torsional bending moment due to expansion load SA = Allowable stress range.

ASME 31.3 cont.

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ASME 31.3 specify branching specifications for each fluid category defining some parameters and requirements
The run pipe diameter-to-thickness ratio (Dh/Th) < 100 the branch-to-run diameter ratio (Db/Dh) is not greater than 1.0. If Dh/Th >= 100, the branch diameter Db has to be less than onehalf the run diameter Dh. The angle between the branch and run is at least 45.

Another section of ASME 31.3 is for the welding types for each fluid category ASME 31.3 also discussed the pipes that required to be safeguarded ( need more protective measures to minimize the risk of accidental damage to a piping system)

ASME 31.3 Testing

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Leak test: all piping designed in accordance with B31.3 be leak tested according to fluid category the test steps is specified. Hydrostatic test: As in ASME 31.1 pneumatic leak test: Due to the possibility of brittle fracture of nonmetallic piping which may be found in systems under the scope of B31.3 the test requires a pressure relief device having a set pressure of the test pressure plus the smaller of 50 psi or 10 percent of the test pressure. Because chemical piping can involve core complicated equipment and piping designs, there may be additional factors to be considered in a pressure test. Because there may be elevated temperatures, the code includes a provision for establishing a more appropriate test pressure.

ASME 31.9 Building services 4/21/12 piping

The scope of this code envelopes industrial, institutional, commercial, public buildings and multi-unit residences. there are many similarities between B31.9 and B31.1. Both codes cover boiler external piping. However, B31.9 includes steam boilers up to 15 psig maximum, while B31.1 uses 15 psig as a lower limit of its scope. Similarly, B31.9 includes water heating units up to 160 psig maximum, while B31.1 uses 160 psig as its lower limit for hot water.

ASME 31.9 Design equations

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Where : the variables are defined as in ASME B31.1. tm = Minimum required wall thickness[in. or mm] P = Internal design gage pressure [psi or kPa] The pressure is either given or solved for in the equations. S = Maximum allowable stress values in tension for the material at the design temperature [psi or kPa] E, A = welding efficiency and additional thickness

Pipe supports

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It transmits the load from pipe to structures or pressure equipment . It bear the dead loading, live loading, wind, snow, and seismic loadings, as well as the loads imposed or caused by variations in temperatures.

Pipe supports standards

ANSI31.1 &31.3 i.e. Power Piping & Process Piping. MSSSP 58 Pipe Hangers and Support: Materials, Design & Manufacturers. MSSSP 69 Pipe Hangers and Supports: Selection & Application. MSSSP 77 Guidelines for Pipe Supports Contractual Relationships.

Types of supports

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There are six main types of supports:

1.

Rigid or weight supports & hangers. Variable effort supports & hangers. Constant effort supports. Spring loaded sway braces. Dynamic restraints. Snubbers & shock absorbers. Ancillary items

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

These types of supports can be divided into three main types which are rigid supports, variable effort support and constant effort support

Rigid supports

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Rigid Hangers are normally used at suspension points where no vertical movement occurs and the only considerations are the Load at the point of support, line temperature, Pipe Material of construction, and insulation thickness. Rigid supports support the Pipe line from the bottom and usually rest on the floor, pipe rack or structure. Pipe line subjected to horizontal expansions only may be supported by Pipe roller guides and when both X & Z direction movement takes place pipe lines are supported by pipe shoes with low friction slide bearings beneath them.

Variable effort supports & hangers Variable effort supports also known as variable hangers or
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variables are used to support pipe lines subjected to moderate (approximately up to 50mm) vertical thermal movements.

Variable effort supports are used to support the weight of pipe work or equipments along with weight of fluids (gases are considered weightless) while allowing certain quantum of movement with respect to the structure supporting it. Spring supports may also be used to support lines subject to relative movements occurring typically due to subsidence or earthquakes.

Constant effort supports and hangers support the load In a constant effort
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remains constant when the pipe moves from its cold position to the hot position. Thus irrespective of travel the load remains constant over the complete range of movement.

When confronted with large vertical movements typically 150 mm or 250 mm, there is no choice but to select a constant effort support (CES). For pipes which are critical to the performance of the system or so called critical piping where no residual stresses are to be transferred to the pipe it is a common practice to use CESs.

Sway braces

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They are spring loaded units mounted on pipe work to limit the swaying or vibration induced by external forces by applying an opposing force on the pipe.

Dynamic restraints

A restraint is a device that prevents either the pipe work or the plant to which the pipe work is connected being damaged due to the occurrence of Earthquakes, Fluid disturbances and other environmental influences It is designed to absorb and transfer sudden increases in load from the pipe into the building structure and to deaden any opposing oscillation between the pipe and the structure.

Snubbers and shock absorbers

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A fluid passes through a springloaded valve, the spring being used to hold the valve open. If the differential pressure across the valve exceeds the effective pressure exerted by the spring, the valve will close. This causes the snubber to become rigid and further displacement is substantially prevented.

Ancillary items

Ancillaries are the hardware that complement supports and allow the connection of the pipe to the building structure, sometimes as simple as a pipe shoe or comprised of many items from a beam clamp through hanger rods, spreader beams and pipe clamps.

Pipe system support designing

4/21/12 Supports specifications

These specifications must be taken into consideration by the designer:

1.

The exact hot or operating load required to be supported during the working condition. Hydrostatic test load. The total travel. The direction of travel either upwards or downwards from the erected position. The set pin locking position. The basic model. Requirements of bottom accessory components such as rods, clamps etc. Any hazardous environmental conditions. Any special finish on the body such as galvanizing.

2. 3. 4.

5. 6. 7.

8. 9.

Location of supports 4/21/12

Supports should be located at near as possible to concentrated loads as valves, flanges etc. to keep the bending stresses to the minimum.

Thermal movement in4/21/12 pipe supports

Pipe lines which carry fluids have a tendency to expand with increase in temperature.

Thermal movement in4/21/12 pipe supports

To avoid the above situation a flexible support is introduced which will allow the Pipe to move vertically and at the same time support the load of the pipe to prevent its weight being transferred to the nozzle.

Maximum Load Variation

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This is the variation in load or stress imposed on the pipe work system when moving from the cold condition to the hot condition. This is usually expressed as a percentage of the hot load. As the pipe is suspended or supported directly on a spring any thermal movement of pipe line will force the support to expand or compress causing either a decrease or increase in load. LV= (Hot Load Cold Load)*100/Hot Load LV= (Travel * Spring rate)*100/Hot Load

Steps for selection of 4/21/12 hangers to suit specified load variation effort & pipe movement Determine the required supporting

Locate the spring size which accommodates the required Load. Use tables to choose a type and use trial and error method. Calculate the cold or hot loads. Ensure that both the cold load & hot load can be accommodated in the same type of support . If the Loads & travel cannot be accommodated, try the next size or the next travel range.

Continue this iteration process till the following criteria are met:

Operating & Preset Load in the same type. Load variation less than specified LV%. Smallest possible size selected.

Buried Pipe Design

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Underground conduits have served to improve peoples standard of living since the dawn of civilization. . Remnants of such structures from ancient civilizations have been found in Europe, Asia, and even the western hemisphere. Today, underground conduits serve in diverse applications such as sewer lines, drain lines, water mains, gas lines, telephone and electrical conduits, culverts, oil lines, coal slurry lines, subway tunnels, and heat distribution lines. It is true we must build down before we can build up.. In the early 1900s, Anson Marston developed a method of calculating the earth load to which a buried conduit is

Soil Mechanics

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Various parameters must be considered in the design of a buried piping system. soil type, soil density, moisture content, and depth of the installation are commonly considered. If finite element analysis is used, many soil characteristics are required as input to the mathematical soil model.

the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) is most commonly used in the construction industry.

Soil stiffness (modulus) is an extremely important soil property and is the main contributor to the pipe-soil system performance. Experience has shown that a high soil density will ensure high. soil stiffness. Therefore, soil density is usually given special importance in piping system design.

Materials used in buried 4/21/12 pipes

There are many types of piping materials on the market today ranging from rigid concrete to flexible thermal plastic. Such things as inherent strength, stiffness, corrosion resistance, lightness, flexibility, and ease of joining are some characteristics that are often given as reasons for using a particular material.

A pipe must have enough strength and/or stiffness to perform its intended function. It must also be durable enough to last for its design life.

Piping materials are generally placed in one of two classifications: rigid or flexible. A flexible pipe has been defined as one that will deflect at least 2 percent without structural distress.

4/21/12 Rigid pipes Vs Flexible pipes

For rigid pipes, strength to resist wall stresses due to the combined effects of internal pressure and external load is usually critical. For flexible pipes, stiffness may be important in resisting ring deflection and possible buckling For a thermal plastic pipe, such as PVC pipe, strength is measured in terms of a long-term hydrostatic design hoop stress.

Pipe Hydraulics

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The field of study of fluid flow in pipes is often referred to as hydraulics. Flow in pipes is usually classified as pressure flow for systems where pipes are flowing full or open-channel flow when pipes are not flowing full. Water systems are pressure systems and are considered to be flowing full. On the other hand, sewer systems, for the most part, are openchannel systems. The relatively small concentration of solids is not sufficient, Thus sewage is accepted to have the same hydraulic flow characteristics as water. For pressure flow, the Hazen-Williams equation is widely accepted.

Water Systems

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Water systems are lifelines of communities. They consist of such items as valves, fittings, thrust restraints, pumps, reservoirs, and, of course, pipes and other miscellaneous appurtenances The water system is sometimes divided into two parts: the transmission lines and the distribution system. The design of distribution piping system is somewhat similar to that of transmission lines except that a substantial surge allowance for possible water hammer is included in the pressure design. The hydraulic analysis of such a system is almost impossible by hand methods, but is readily accomplished using programming methods via digital computers.

Buried Pipe Design

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The piping system must be strong enough to withstand induced stresses, have relatively smooth walls, have a tight joining system, and be somewhat chemically inert with respect to soil and water. The normal design life for such systems should be 50 years minimum. However, 50 years is not long enough. Government and private agencies cannot afford to replace all the buried pipe infrastructures on a 50-year basis.100 year is better. For engineers, economics is always an important consideration; any economic evaluation must include more than just initial cost. Annual maintenance and life of the system must also be considered.

The question is not whether the pipe will last, but how long it will perform its designed function.

Marston load theory

a) Rigid pipe
The Marston load theory is based on the concept of a prism of soil in the trench that imposes a load on the pipe.

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Marston load theory.

a) Rigid pipe

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Embankment conditions. Not all pipes are installed in ditches (trenches); therefore, it is necessary to treat the problem of pipes buried in embankments. An embankment is where the top of the pipe is above the natural ground.

Marston load theory.

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Embankment conditions. Not all pipes are installed in ditches (trenches); therefore, it is necessary to treat the problem of pipes buried in embankments.

Marston load theory.

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Tunnel construction. Marstons theory may be used to determine soil loads on pipes that are in tunnels or that are jacked into place through undisturbed soil. The Marston tunnel load equation is

C is very important in determining the load. Unfortunately, values of the coefficient C have a wide range of variation even for similar soils.

Marston load theory.

b) Flexible pipe

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* A flexible pipe derives its soil-load-carrying capacity from its flexibility. Under soil load, the pipe tends to deflect, thereby developing passive Soil support at the sides of the pipe. * The effective strength of the flexible pipe-soil system is remarkably high

Marston load theory.

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Marston load theory. For the special case when the side fill and pipe have the same stiffness.

Pipe stiffness versus 4/21/12 soil compressibility

Measurements revealed that the load on a flexible pipe is substantially less than that on a rigid pipe. The magnitude of this difference in loads may be a little shocking. Suppose a weight is placed on a spring. We realize the spring will deform, resisting deflection because of its spring stiffness. When load versus deflection is plotted, we find that this relationship is linear up to the elastic limit of the spring

Pipe stiffness versus 4/21/12 soil compressibility

When a load is placed on a flexible pipe, the pipe also deflects and resists deflection because of its stiffness. It is even possible to think of soil as being a nonlinear spring that resists movement or deflection because of its stiffness.

Pipe stiffness versus 4/21/12 soil compressibility

we can easily visualize the soil deforming and the pipe carrying the majority of the load. If the situation is reversed, placing a flexible spring between two springs(soil), we can picture the pipe deflecting and the soil is being forced to carry the load to a greater extent.

Pipe stiffness versus 4/21/12 soil compressibility

Pipe stiffness versus soil compressibility When a flexible pipe is buried in the soil, the pipe and soil then work as a system in resisting the load.

Pipe stiffness versus 4/21/12 soil compressibility

The reduction in load imposed on a pipe because of its flexibility is referred to as arching. However, the overall performance is not just due to arching, but is also due to the soil at the sides of the pipe resisting deflection

Continue Marston load 4/21/12 theory

Prism load It is the weight. of the soil over the pipe Again, Eq. (2.4) represents a maximum-type loading condition, and Eq. (2.10) represents a minimum.

For a flexible pipe, the maximum load is always much too large. The mini is the same. The actual load will lie somewhere between these limits.

Continue Marston load 4/21/12 theory

Tunnel Loading since a flexible pipe develops a large percentage of its loadcarrying capacity from passive side support, this support must be provided, or the pipe will tend to deflect until the sides of the pipe are being supported by the sides of the tunnel.

4/21/12

Thank You
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