Network+ Guide to Networks 5th Edition

Chapter 4 Introduction to TCP/IP Protocols

Objectives
Identify and explain the functions of the core TCP/IP protocols Explain how the TCP/IP protocols correlate to layers of the OSI model Discuss addressing schemes for TCP/IP in IPv4 and IPv6 protocols

Network+ Guide to Networks, 5th Edition

Objectives (contd.)
Describe the purpose and implementation of DNS (Domain Name System) and DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) Identify the well-known ports for key TCP/IP services Describe common Application layer TCP/IP protocols

Network+ Guide to Networks, 5th Edition

Characteristics of TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol)

Protocol Suite
IP or TCP/IP Subprotocols
TCP, IP, UDP, ARP

Developed by Department of Defense

ARPANET (1960s)
Internet precursor

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Characteristics of TCP/IP (contd.)

Popularity
Low cost Communicates between dissimilar platforms Open nature Routable
Spans more than one LAN (LAN segment)

Flexible
Runs on combinations of network operating systems or network media Disadvantage: requires more configuration
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The TCP/IP Core Protocols

TCP/IP suite subprotocols Operates in Transport or Network layers of OSI model Provide basic services to protocols in other layers Most significant protocols in TCP/IP
TCP IP

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TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)

Transport layer protocol Provides reliable data delivery services
Connection-oriented subprotocol
Establish connection before transmitting

Sequencing and checksums Flow control

Data does not flood node

TCP segment format

Encapsulated by IP datagram in Network layer
Becomes IP datagrams data
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TCP (contd.)

Figure 4-1 A TCP segment

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TCP (contd.)

Figure 4-2 TCP segment data

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TCP (contd.)
Three segments establish connection Computer A issues message to Computer B
Sends segment
SYN field: Random synchronize sequence number

Computer B receives message

Sends segment
ACK field: sequence number Computer A sent plus 1 SYN field: Computer B random number

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TCP (contd.)
Computer A responds
Sends segment
ACK field: sequence number Computer B sent plus 1 SYN field: Computer B random number

FIN flag indicates transmission end

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Figure 4-3 Establishing a TCP connection

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UDP (User Datagram Protocol)

Transport layer protocol Provides unreliable data delivery services
Connectionless transport service
No assurance packets received in correct sequence No guarantee packets received at all No error checking, sequencing

Lacks sophistication
More efficient than TCP

Useful situations
Great volume of data transferred quickly
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UDP (contd.)

Figure 4-4 A UDP segment

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IP (Internet Protocol)
Network layer protocol
How and where data delivered, including:
Datas source and destination addresses

Enables TCP/IP to internetwork

Traverse more than one LAN segment
More than one network type through router

Network layer data formed into packets

IP datagram
Data envelope Contains information for routers to transfer data between different LAN segments
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IP (contd.)
Unreliable, connectionless protocol
No guaranteed data delivery

IP used by higher level protocols

Ensure data packets delivered to correct addresses

Reliability component
Header checksum
Verifies routing information integrity in IP header

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IP (contd.)

Figure 4-5 An IP datagram

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IP (contd.)

Figure 4-6 IP datagram data

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ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol)

Network layer protocol
Reports on data delivery success/failure

Announces transmission failures to sender

Network congestion Data fails to reach destination Data discarded: TTL expired

ICMP cannot correct errors

Provides critical network problem troubleshooting information

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IGMP (Internet Group Management Protocol)

Network layer protocol Manages multicasting
Allows one node to send data to defined group of nodes
Similar to broadcast transmission

Point-to-multipoint method Uses

Internet teleconferencing, videoconferencing, routers, network nodes

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ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)

Network layer protocol Obtains host (node) MAC (physical) address
Creates database Maps MAC address to hosts IP (logical) address

ARP table (ARP cache)

Database on computers hard disk
Contains recognized MAC-to-IP address mappings

Increases efficiency

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ARP (contd.)
Two entry types
Dynamic
Created when client makes ARP request that cannot be satisfied by data in ARP table

Static
Entries entered manually using ARP utility

ARP utility
Accessed via the arp command
Windows command prompt, UNIX, or Linux shell prompt

Provides ARP table information Provides way to manipulate devices ARP table
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ARP (contd.)

Figure 4-7 Example ARP table

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RARP (Reverse Address Resolution Protocol)

Problem: cannot use ARP
If device does not know its own IP address

Solution: RARP
Client sends broadcast message with MAC address
Receives IP address in reply

RARP server maintains table

Contains MAC addresses, associated IP addresses

RARP originally developed diskless workstations

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IPv4 Addressing
Networks recognize two addresses
Logical (Network layer) Physical (MAC, hardware) addresses

IP protocol handles logical addressing Specific parameters

Unique 32-bit number
Divided into four octets (sets of eight bits) Separated by periods

Example: 144.92.43.178
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IPv4 Addressing (contd.)

Table 4-1 Commonly used TCP/IP classes

IP address information
Network Class determined by first octet
Class A, Class B, Class C

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IPv4 Addressing (contd.)

Class D, Class E rarely used (never assign)
Class D: value between 224 and 230
Multicasting

Class E: value between 240 and 254

Experimental use

Eight bits have 256 combinations

Networks use 1 through 254 0: reserved as placeholder
10.0.0.0

255: reserved for broadcast transmission

255.255.255.255
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IPv4 Addressing (contd.)

Class A devices
Share same first octet (bits 0-7)
Network ID

Host: second through fourth octets (bits 8-31)

Class B devices
Share same first two octet (bits 0-15) Host: second through fourth octets (bits 16-31)

Class C devices
Share same first three octet (bits 0-23) Host: second through fourth octets (bits 24-31)
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Figure 4-8 IP addresses and their classes

Running out of addresses

IPv6 incorporates new addressing scheme

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IPv4 Addressing (contd.)

Loop back address
First octet equals 127 (127.0.0.1)

Loopback test
Attempting to connect to own machine Powerful troubleshooting tool

Windows XP, Vista

ipconfig command

Unix, Linux
ifconfig command
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IPv4 Addressing (contd.)

Figure 4-9 Results of the ipconfig /all command on a Windows XP or Windows Vista workstation
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IPv4 Addressing (contd.)

Figure 4-10 Results of the ifconfig -a command on a UNIX workstation

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Binary and Dotted Decimal Notation

Decimal number between 0 and 255 represents each binary octet Period (dot) separates each decimal Dotted decimal address has binary equivalent
Converting each octet Remove decimal points

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Subnet Mask
Identifies every device on TCP/IP-based network 32-bit number (net mask)
Identifies devices subnet
Combines with device IP address Informs network about segment, network where device attached

Four octets (32 bits)

Expressed in binary or dotted decimal notation

Assigned same way a IP addresses

Manually, automatically (via DHCP)
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Table 4-2 Default subnet masks

Subnetting
Subdividing network single class into multiple, smaller logical networks (segments) Control network traffic Make best use of limited number of IP addresses Subnet mask varies depending on subnetting

Nonsubnetted networks use defaults

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Assigning IP Addresses
Government-sponsored organizations
Dole out IP addresses IANA, ICANN, RIRs

Companies, individuals
Obtain IP addresses from ISPs

Every network node must have unique IP address

Error message otherwise

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Assigning IP Addresses (contd.)

Static IP address
Assignment manually Modify client workstation TCP/IP properties
Only way to change

Human error cause duplicates

Automatic IP addressing
BOOTP and DHCP Reduce duplication error

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BOOTP (Bootstrap Protocol)

Mid-1980s Application layer protocol Central list
IP addresses, associated devices MAC addresses Assign client IP addresses dynamically

Dynamic IP address
Assigned to device upon request Changeable

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BOOTP (contd.)
BOOTP process
Client connects to network Sends broadcast message asking for IP address
Includes clients NIC MAC address

BOOTP server looks up clients MAC address in BOOTP table Responds to client
Clients IP address Server IP address Server host name Default router IP address
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BOOTP (contd.)
Process resembles RARP
Difference
RARP requests, responses not routable RARP only capable of issuing IP address to client BOOTP may issue additional information (clients subnet mask)

BOOTP surpassed by DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol)

More sophisticated IP addressing utility DHCP requires little intervention
BOOTP difficult to maintain on large networks
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DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol)

Assigns network device unique IP address
Automatically

Application layer protocol Developed by IETF (BOOTP replacement) Operation

Similar to BOOTP Lower administrative burden
Administrator does not maintain table

Requires DHCP service on DHCP server

Many reasons to use

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DHCP Leasing Process

Device borrows (leases) IP address
Devices use IP address temporarily
Specified time limit

Lease time
Determine when client obtains IP address at log on User may force lease termination

DHCP service configuration

Specify leased address range Configure lease duration

Several steps to negotiate clients first lease

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DHCP Leasing Process (contd.)

Figure 4-11 The DHCP leasing process

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Terminating a DHCP Lease

Lease expiration
Automatic
Established in server configuration

Manually terminated at any time

Clients TCP/IP configuration Servers DHCP configuration

Circumstances requiring lease termination

DHCP server fails and replaced
Windows: release of TCP/IP settings

DHCP services run on several server types

Installation and configurations vary
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APIPA (Automatic Private IP Addressing)

Client cannot communicate without valid IP address What if DHCP server not running?
Microsoft offers Automatic Private IP Addressing
Windows 98, Me, 2000, XP, Vista, Windows Server 2003, Windows Server 2008 Provides IP address automatically

IANA (Internet Assigned Numbers Authority) reserved predefined pool of addresses

169.254.0.0 through 169.254.255.255

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APIPA (contd.)
APIPA
Assigns computers network adapter IP address from the pool Assigns subnet default Class B network
255.255.0.0

Part of operating system

No need to register; check with central authority

Disadvantage
Computer only communicates with other nodes using addresses in APIPA range
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APIPA (contd.)
APIPA suitable use
Small networks: no DHCP servers

APIPA unsuitable use

Networks communicating with other subnets, WAN

APIPA enabled by default: OK

First checks for DHCP server
Allows DHCP server to assign addresses

Does not reassign new address if static Works with DHCP clients Disabled in registry
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Quick Quiz #1
1. TCP/IP is a ____ of protocols. Answer: Suite 2. TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) operates in the ___ layer of the OSI model. Answer: Transport 3. ____ is a Network layer protocol that reports on the success or failure of data delivery. Answer: ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) 4. With DHCP, a device borrows, or ____ an IP address while it is attached to the network. Answer: leases 5. True or False: It is unacceptable to leave APIPA enabled if it is not needed. Answer: False
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IPv6 Addressing
IP next generation (IPng)
Replacing IPv4 (gradually)

IPv6 support
Most new applications, servers, network devices

Delay in implementation
Cost of upgrading infrastructure

IPv6 advantages
More efficient header, better security, better prioritization provisions, automatic IP address configuration Billions of additional IP addresses
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IPv6 Addressing (contd.)

Difference between IPv4 and IPv6 addresses
Size
IPv4: 32 bits IPv6: eight 16-bit fields (128 bits) IPv6: 296 (4 billion times 4 billion times 4 billion) available IP addresses

Representation
IPv4: binary numbers separated by period IPv6: hexadecimal numbers separated by colon IPv6 shorthand: :: any number of multiple, zero-value fields
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IPv6 Addressing (contd.)

Difference between IPv4 and IPv6 addresses (contd.)
Representation (contd.)
IPv6 loopback address is 0:0:0:0:0:0:0:1 Abbreviated loopback address ::1

Scope
IPv6 addresses can reflect scope of transmissions recipients Unicast address represents single device interface Multicast address represents multiple interfaces (often on multiple devices)
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IPv6 Addressing (contd.)

Difference between IPv4 and IPv6 addresses (contd.)
Scope (contd.)
Anycast address represents any one interface from a group of interfaces Any one can accept transmission

Format Prefix (IPv6)

Beginning of address Variable-length field Indicates address type: unicast, multicast, anycast
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Sockets and Ports

Processes assigned unique port numbers Processs socket
Port number plus host machines IP address

Port numbers
Simplify TCP/IP communications Ensures data transmitted correctly

Example
Telnet port number: 23 IPv4 host address: 10.43.3.87 Socket address: 10.43.3.87:23
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Sockets and Ports (contd.)

Figure 4-12 A virtual connection for the Telnet service

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Sockets and Ports (contd.)

Port number range: 0 to 65535 Three types
Well Known Ports
Range: 0 to 1023 Operating system or administrator use

Registered Ports
Range: 1024 to 49151 Network users, processes with no special privileges

Dynamic and/or Private Ports

Range: 49152 through 65535 No restrictions
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Sockets and Ports (contd.)

Table 4-3 Commonly used TCP/IP port numbers

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Sockets and Ports (contd.)

Servers maintain an editable, text-based file
Port numbers and associated services Free to change
Not good idea: standards violation

May change for security reasons

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Host Names and DNS (Domain Name System)

TCP/IP addressing
Long, complicated numbers Good for computers

People remember words better

Internet authorities established Internet node naming system

Host
Internet device

Host name
Name describing device
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Domain Names
Domain
Group of computers belonging to same organization Share common part of IP address

Domain name
Identifies domain (loc.gov) Associated with company, university, government organization

Fully qualified host name (jasmine.loc.gov)

Local host name plus domain name

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Domain Names (contd.)

Label (character string)
Separated by dots Represents level in domain naming hierarchy

Example: www.google.com
Top-level domain (TLD): com Second-level domain: google Third-level domain: www

Second-level domain
May contain multiple third-level domains

ICANN established domain naming conventions

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Table 4-4 Top-level domains

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Domain Names (contd.)

ICANN approved over 240 country codes Host and domain names restrictions
Any alphanumeric combination up to 63 characters Include hyphens, underscores, periods in name No other special characters

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Host Files
ARPAnet used HOSTS.TXT file
Associated host names with IP addresses Host matched by one line
Identifies hosts name, IP address Alias provides nickname

UNIX-/Linux-based computer
Host file called hosts, located in the /etc directory

Windows 9x, NT, 2000, XP, Vista computer

Host file called hosts Located in %systemroot%\system32\drivers\etc folder
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Host Files (contd.)

Figure 4-13 Example host file

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DNS (Domain Name System)

Hierarchical
Associate domain names with IP addresses

DNS refers to:

Application layer service accomplishing association Organized system of computers; databases making association possible

DNS redundancy
Many computers across globe related in hierarchical manner Root servers
13 computers (ultimate authorities)
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Figure 4-14 Domain name resolution

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DNS (contd.)
Three components
Resolvers
Any hosts on Internet needing to look up domain name information

Name servers (DNS servers)

Databases of associated names, IP addresses Provide information to resolvers on request

Namespace
Abstract database of Internet IP addresses, associated names Describes how name servers of the world share DNS information
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DNS (contd.)
Resource record
Describes one piece of DNS database information Many different types
Dependent on function

Contents
Name field Type field Class field Time to Live field Data length field Actual data
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Configuring DNS
Large organizations
Often maintain two name servers
Primary and secondary

Ensures Internet connectivity

Each device must know how to find server

Automatically by DHCP Manually configure workstation TCP/IP properties

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Configuring DNS (contd.)

Figure 4-15 Windows XP Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) Properties dialog box

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Configuring DNS (contd.)

Figure 4-16 Windows Vista Internet Protocol Version 4 (TCP/IPv4) Properties dialog box
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DDNS (Dynamic DNS)

Used in Website hosting
Manually changing DNS records unmanageable

Process
Service provider runs program on users computer
Notifies service provider when IP address changes

Service providers server launches routine to automatically update DNS record

Effective throughout Internet in minutes

Not DNS replacement Larger organizations pay for statically assigned IP address
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Zeroconf (Zero Configuration)

Collection of protocols
Designed by IETF Simplify TCP/IP network node setup IP addresses assigned through IPv4LL

IP version 4 Link Local

Manages automatic address assignment
Locally connected nodes

Not used on larger networks Especially useful with network printers

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Application Layer Protocols

Work over TCP or UDP plus IP
Translate user requests
Into format readable by network

HTTP
Application layer protocol central to using Web

BOOTP and DHCP

Automatic address assignment

Additional Application layer protocols exist

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Telnet
Terminal emulation protocol
Log on to remote hosts
Using TCP/IP protocol suite

TCP connection established

Keystrokes on users machine act like keystrokes on remotely connected machine

Often connects two dissimilar systems Can control remote host Drawback
Notoriously insecure
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FTP (File Transfer Protocol)

Send and receive files via TCP/IP Host running FTP server portion
Accepts commands from host running FTP client

FTP commands
Operating systems command prompt
No special client software required

FTP hosts allow anonymous logons After connected to host

Additional commands available Type help
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FTP (contd.)
Graphical FTP clients
MacFTP, WS_FTP, CuteFTP, SmartFTP
Rendered command-line method less common

FTP file transfers directly from modern Web browser

Point browser to FTP host Move through directories, exchange files

SFTP
More secure

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TFTP (Trivial File Transfer Protocol)

Enables file transfers between computers
Simpler (more trivial) than FTP

TFTP relies on Transport layer UDP

Connectionless Does not guarantee reliable data delivery

No ID and password required

Security risk

No directory browsing allowed Useful to load data, programs on diskless workstation

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NTP (Network Time Protocol)

Synchronizes network computer clocks Depends on UDP Transport layer services
Benefits from UDPs quick, connectionless nature
Time sensitive Cannot wait for error checking

Time synchronization importance

Routing Time-stamped security methods Maintaining accuracy, consistency between multiple storage systems
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NNTP (Network News Transfer Protocol)

Facilitates newsgroup messages exchange
Between multiple servers, users

Similar to e-mail
Provides means of conveying messages

Differs from e-mail

Distributes messages to wide group of users at once

User subscribes to newsgroup server host News servers

Central collection, distribution point for newsgroup messages
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PING (Packet Internet Groper)

Provides verification
TCP/IP installed, bound to NIC, configured correctly, communicating with network Host responding

Uses ICMP services

Send echo request and echo reply messages
Determine IP address validity

Ping IP address or host name Ping loopback address: 127.0.0.1

Determine if workstations TCP/IP services running
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PING (contd.)

Figure 4-17 Output from successful and unsuccessful PING tests

Operating system determines Ping command options, switches, syntax

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Quick Quiz # 2
1. IPv6 addresses are composed of ____ bits. Answer: 128 2. Which IPv6 address type represents a single interface on a device? Answer: Unicast 3. Every process on a machine is assigned a(n) ____ number. Answer: port 4. A domain name is represented by a series of character strings, called labels, separated by ____. Answer: dots 5. True or False: Host files are the best automated solution for assigning IP addresses. Answer: False 6. True or False: Telnet is generally considered to be insecure. Answer: True
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Summary
TCP/IP suite
Core protocol and subprotocol introduction

IPv4 addressing
Binary and dotted decimal notation Subnetting

Assigning addresses: BOOTP, DHCP, APIPA IPv6 addressing Sockets and Ports Domain names, Host files, DHCP, DNS Other application layer protocols
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