Chapter 01

Chapter 1:
Foundations: Sets, Logic, and Algorithms

Discrete Mathematical Structures:
Theory and Applications
Discrete Mathematical Structures: Theory and Applications
2
Learning Objectives
Learn about sets
Explore various operations on sets
Become familiar with Venn diagrams
Learn how to represent sets in computer
memory
Learn about statements (propositions)
3
Learning Objectives
Learn how to use logical connectives to combine
statements
Explore how to draw conclusions using various
argument forms
Become familiar with quantifiers and predicates
Learn various proof techniques
Explore what an algorithm is

4
Sets
Definition: Well-defined collection of distinct
objects
Members or Elements: part of the collection
Roster Method: Description of a set by listing the
elements, enclosed with braces
Examples:
Vowels = {a,e,i,o,u}
Primary colors = {red, blue, yellow}
Membership examples
a belongs to the set of Vowels is written as: a e
Vowels
j does not belong to the set of Vowels: j e Vowels
5
Sets
Set-builder method
A = { x | x e S, P(x) } or A = { x e S | P(x) }
A is the set of all elements x of S, such that x
satisfies the property P
Example:
If X = {2,4,6,8,10}, then in set-builder notation, X
can be described as
X = {n e Z | n is even and 2 s n s 10}
6
Sets
Standard Symbols which denote sets of numbers
N : The set of all natural numbers (i.e.,all positive integers)
Z : The set of all integers
Z* : The set of all nonzero integers
E : The set of all even integers
Q : The set of all rational numbers
Q* : The set of all nonzero rational numbers
Q
+
: The set of all positive rational numbers
R : The set of all real numbers
R* : The set of all nonzero real numbers
R
+
: The set of all positive real numbers
C : The set of all complex numbers
C* : The set of all nonzero complex numbers
7
Sets
Subsets
X is a subset of Y is written as X _ Y
X is not a subset of Y is written as X Y
Example:
X = {a,e,i,o,u}, Y = {a, i, u} and z = {b,c,d,f,g}
Y _ X, since every element of Y is an element of X
Y Z, since a e Y, but a e Z

8
Sets
Superset
X and Y are sets. If X _ Y, then X is contained in
Y or Y contains X or Y is a superset of X,
written Y _ X
Proper Subset
X and Y are sets. X is a proper subset of Y if X _
Y and there exists at least one element in Y that is
not in X. This is written X c Y.
Example:
X = {a,e,i,o,u}, Y = {a,e,i,o,u,y}
X c Y , since y e Y, but y e X
9
Sets
Set Equality
X and Y are sets. They are said to be equal if every
element of X is an element of Y and every element
of Y is an element of X, i.e. X _ Y and Y _ X
Examples:
{1,2,3} = {2,3,1}
X = {red, blue, yellow} and Y = {c | c is a primary
color} Therefore, X=Y
Empty (Null) Set
A Set is Empty (Null) if it contains no elements.
The Empty Set is written as C
The Empty Set is a subset of every set
10
Sets
Finite and Infinite Sets
X is a set. If there exists a nonnegative integer n
such that X has n elements, then X is called a
finite set with n elements.
If a set is not finite, then it is an infinite set.
Examples:
Y = {1,2,3} is a finite set
P = {red, blue, yellow} is a finite set
E , the set of all even integers, is an infinite set
C , the Empty Set, is a finite set with 0 elements
11
Sets
Cardinality of Sets
Let S be a finite set with n distinct elements,
where n 0. Then |S| = n , where the cardinality
(number of elements) of S is n
Example:
If P = {red, blue, yellow}, then |P| = 3
Singleton
A set with only one element is a singleton
Example:
H = { 4 }, |H| = 1, H is a singleton
12
Sets
Power Set
For any set X ,the power set of X ,written P(X),is
the set of all subsets of X
Example:
If X = {red, blue, yellow}, then P(X) = { C , {red},
{blue}, {yellow}, {red,blue}, {red, yellow}, {blue,
yellow}, {red, blue, yellow} }
Universal Set
An arbitrarily chosen, but fixed set
13
Sets
Venn Diagrams
Abstract visualization
of a Universal set, U
as a rectangle, with all
subsets of U shown as
circles.
Shaded portion
represents the
corresponding set
Example:
In Figure 1, Set X,
shaded, is a subset of
the Universal set, U

14
Sets
Union of Sets
Example:
If X = {1,2,3,4,5} and Y = {5,6,7,8,9}, then
XY = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9}

15
Sets
Intersection of Sets
Example:
If X = {1,2,3,4,5} and Y = {5,6,7,8,9}, then X Y = {5}

16
Sets
Disjoint Sets
Example:
If X = {1,2,3,4,} and Y = {6,7,8,9}, then X Y = C

17
Sets
18
Sets
19
Sets
The union and intersection
of three,four,or even
infinitely many sets can be
considered
For a finite collection of n
sets, X
1
, X
2
, X
n
where n
2 :
20
Sets
Index Set
21
Sets

Example:
If A = {a,b,c}, B = {x, y, z} and C = {1,2,3}
then A B = C and B C = C and A C =
C. Therefore, A,B,C are pairwise disjoint

22
Sets
Difference

Example:
If X = {a,b,c,d} and Y =
{c,d,e,f}, then X Y =
{a,b} and Y X = {e,f}

23
Sets
Complement
Example:
If U = {a,b,c,d,e,f} and X = {c,d,e,f}, then X = {a,b}

24
Sets

25
Sets

26
Sets
27
Sets
Ordered Pair
X and Y are sets. If x e X and y e Y, then an ordered
pair is written (x,y)
Order of elements is important. (x,y) is not necessarily
equal to (y,x)
Cartesian Product
The Cartesian product of two sets X and Y ,written X Y
,is the set
X Y ={(x,y)|x X , y Y}
For any set X, X C = C = C X
Example:
X = {a,b}, Y = {c,d}
X Y = {(a,c), (a,d), (b,c), (b,d)}
Y X = {(c,a), (d,a), (c,b), (d,b)}
28
Sets
Diagonal of a Set
For a set X ,the set
x
, is the diagonal of X,
defined by

x
= {(x,x) | x X}
Example:
X = {a,b,c},
x
= {(a,a), (b,b), (c,c)}

29
Sets
Computer Representation of Sets
A Set may be stored in a computer in an array as
an unordered list
Problem: Difficult to perform operations on the set.
Solution: use Bit Strings
A Bit String is a sequence of 0s and 1s
Length of a Bit String is the number of digits in the
string
Elements appear in order in the bit string
A 0 indicates an element is absent, a 1 indicates that
the element is present
30
Mathematical Logic
Definition: Methods of reasoning, provides rules
and techniques to determine whether an
argument is valid
Theorem: a statement that can be shown to be
true (under certain conditions)
Example: If x is an even integer, then x + 1 is an
odd integer
This statement is true under the condition that x is
an integer is true
31
Mathematical Logic
A statement, or a proposition, is a declarative
sentence that is either true or false, but not both
Lowercase letters denote propositions
Examples:
p: 2 is an even number (true)
q: 3 is an odd number (true)
r: A is a consonant (false)
The following are not propositions:
p: My cat is beautiful
q: Are you in charge?
32
Mathematical Logic
Truth value
One of the values truth or falsity assigned to a
statement
True is abbreviated to T or 1
False is abbreviated to F or 0
Negation
The negation of p, written p, is the statement obtained
by negating statement p
Truth values of p and p are opposite
Symbol ~ is called not ~p is read as as not p
Example:
p: A is a consonant
~p: it is the case that A is not a consonant
q: Are you in charge?
33
Mathematical Logic
Truth Table

Conjunction
Let p and q be statements.The conjunction of p and q,
written p ^ q , is the statement formed by joining statements p
and q using the word and
The statement pq is true if both p and q are true;
otherwise pq is false

34
Mathematical Logic
Conjunction
Truth Table for
Conjunction:

35
Mathematical Logic
Disjunction
Let p and q be statements. The disjunction of p
and q, written p q , is the statement formed by
joining statements p and q using the word or
The statement pq is true if at least one of the
statements p and q is true; otherwise pq is false
The symbol is read or

36
Mathematical Logic
Disjunction
Truth Table for
Disjunction:

37
Mathematical Logic
Implication
Let p and q be statements.The statement if p
then q is called an implication or condition.
The implication if p then q is written p q
p q is read:
If p, then q
p is sufficient for q
q if p
q whenever p

38
Mathematical Logic
Implication
Truth Table for Implication:

p is called the hypothesis, q is called the
conclusion

39
Mathematical Logic
Implication
Let p: Today is Sunday and q: I will wash the car.
The conjunction p q is the statement:
p q : If today is Sunday, then I will wash the car
The converse of this implication is written q p
If I wash the car, then today is Sunday
The inverse of this implication is ~p ~q
If today is not Sunday, then I will not wash the car
The contrapositive of this implication is ~q ~p
If I do not wash the car, then today is not Sunday

40
Mathematical Logic
Biimplication
Let p and q be statements. The statement p if
and only if q is called the biimplication or
biconditional of p and q
The biconditional p if and only if q is written p
q
p q is read:
p if and only if q
p is necessary and sufficient for q
q if and only if p
q when and only when p

41
Mathematical Logic
Biconditional
Truth Table for the Biconditional:

42
Mathematical Logic
Statement Formulas
Definitions
Symbols p ,q ,r ,...,called statement variables
Symbols ~, , , ,and are called logical
connectives
1) A statement variable is a statement formula
2) If A and B are statement formulas, then the
expressions (~A ), (A B) , (A B ), (A B )
and (A B ) are statement formulas
Expressions are statement formulas that are
constructed only by using 1) and 2) above

43
Mathematical Logic
Precedence of logical connectives is:
~ highest
second highest
third highest
fourth highest
fifth highest
44
Mathematical Logic
Example:
Let A be the statement formula (~(p q )) (q
p )
Truth Table for A is:
45
Mathematical Logic
Tautology
A statement formula A is said to be a tautology if
the truth value of A is T for any assignment of the
truth values T and F to the statement variables
occurring in A
Contradiction
A statement formula A is said to be a
contradiction if the truth value of A is F for any
assignment of the truth values T and F to the
statement variables occurring in A
46
Mathematical Logic
Logically Implies
A statement formula A is said to logically imply a
statement formula B if the statement formula A
B is a tautology. If A logically implies B, then
symbolically we write A B
Logically Equivalent
A statement formula A is said to be logically
equivalent to a statement formula B if the
statement formula A B is a tautology. If A is
logically equivalent to B , then symbolically we
write A B (or A B)

47
Mathematical Logic
48
Mathematical Logic
Proof of (~p q ) (~(q p ))

49
Mathematical Logic
Proof of (~p q ) (~(q p )) [Continued]
50
Validity of Arguments
Proof: an argument or a proof of a theorem
consists of a finite sequence of statements
ending in a conclusion
Argument: a finite sequence
of statements.
The final statement, , is the conclusion, and
the statements are the
premises of the argument.
An argument is logically valid if the statement
formula
is a tautology.

A A A A A n n
, ..., , , ,
1 3 2 1
An
A A A A n 1 3 2 1
..., , , ,
A A A A A n n

1 3 2 1
..., , , ,
51
Valid Argument Forms
Modus Ponens (Method of Affirming)

Modus Tollens (Method of Denying)

52
Disjunctive Syllogisms

Disjunctive Syllogisms
53
Hypothetical Syllogism

Dilemma

54
Conjunctive Simplification

Conjunctive Simplification

55
Valid Argument
Forms
Disjunctive Addition

Disjunctive Addition

56
Conjunctive Addition

57
Quantifiers and First Order Logic
Predicate or Propositional Function
Let x be a variable and D be a set; P(x) is a
sentence
Then P(x) is called a predicate or propositional
function with respect to the set D if for each
value of x in D, P(x) is a statement; i.e., P(x) is
true or false
Moreover, D is called the domain of the
discourse and x is called the free variable
58
Predicate or Propositional Function

Example:
Q(x,y) : x > y, where the Domain is the set of
integers
Q is a 2-place predicate
Q is T for Q(4,3) and Q is F for Q (3,4)
59
Universal Quantifier
Let P(x) be a predicate and let D be the domain
of the discourse. The universal quantification of
P(x) is the statement:
For all x, P(x) or
For every x, P(x)
The symbol is read as for all and every

Two-place predicate:

) (x P x
) , ( y x P y x
60
Existential Quantifier
Let P(x) be a predicate and let D be the domain
of the discourse. The existential quantification of
P(x) is the statement:
There exists x, P(x)
The symbol is read as there exists

Bound Variable
The variable appearing in: or

-
) (x P x -
) (x P x ) (x P x -
61
Negation of Predicates (DeMorgans Laws)

Example:
If P(x) is the statement x has won a race where
the domain of discourse is all runners, then the
universal quantification of P(x) is , i.e.,
every runner has won a race. The negation of this
statement is it is not the case that every runner
has won a race. Therefore there exists at least one
runner who has not won a race. Therefore:
and so,
) ( ~ ) ( ~ x P x x P x -
) (x P x
) ( ~ x P x -
) ( ~ ) ( ~ x P x x P x -
62
Negation of Predicates (DeMorgans
Laws)

) ( ~ ) ( ~ x P x x P x -
63
Formulas in Predicate Logic
All statement formulas are considered formulas
Each n, n =1,2,...,n-place predicate P( )
containing the variables is a formula.
If A and B are formulas, then the expressions ~A,
(AB), (AB) , A B and AB are statement
formulas, where ~, , , and are logical
connectives
If A is a formula and x is a variable, then x A(x) and
x A(x) are formulas
All formulas constructed using only above rules are
considered formulas in predicate logic
x x x
n
, ... , ,
2 1
x x x
n
, ... , ,
2 1
64
Additional Rules of Inference
If the statement x P(x) is assumed to be true, then
P(a) is also true,where a is an arbitrary member of the
domain of the discourse. This rule is called the
universal specification (US)
If P(a) is true, where a is an arbitrary member of the
domain of the discourse, then x P(x) is true. This
rule is called the universal generalization (UG)
If the statement x P (x) is true, then P(a) is true, for
some member of the domain of the discourse. This
rule is called the existential specification (ES)
If P(a) is true for some member a of the domain of the
discourse, then x P(x) is also true. This rule is
called the existential generalization (EG)
65
Counterexample
An argument has the form x (P(x ) Q(x )), where
the domain of discourse is D
To show that this implication is not true in the domain D,
it must be shown that there exists some x in D such that
(P(x ) Q(x )) is not true
This means that there exists some x in D such that P(x)
is true but Q(x) is not true. Such an x is called a
counterexample of the above implication
To show that x (P(x) Q(x)) is false by finding an x
in D such that P(x) Q(x) is false is called the
disproof of the given statement by counterexample
66
Proof Techniques
Theorem
Statement that can be shown to be true (under
certain conditions)
Typically Stated in one of three ways
As Facts
As Implications
As Biimplications

67
Proof Techniques
Direct Proof or Proof by Direct Method
Proof of those theorems that can be expressed in
the form x (P(x) Q(x)), D is the domain of
discourse
Select a particular, but arbitrarily chosen, member
a of the domain D
Show that the statement P(a) Q(a) is true.
(Assume that P(a) is true
Show that Q(a) is true
By the rule of Universal Generalization (UG),
x (P(x) Q(x)) is true
68
Proof Techniques
Indirect Proof
The implication p q is equivalent to the
implication (q p)
Therefore, in order to show that p q is true,
one can also show that the implication
(q p) is true
To show that (q p) is true, assume that the
negation of q is true and prove that the negation
of p is true
69
Proof Techniques
Proof by Contradiction
Assume that the conclusion is not true and then
arrive at a contradiction
Example: Prove that there are infinitely many prime
numbers
Proof:
Assume there are not infinitely many prime numbers,
therefore they are listable, i.e. p
1
,p
2
,,p
n

Consider the number q = p
1
p
2
p
n
+1. q is not
divisible by any of the listed primes
Therefore, q is a prime. However, it was not listed.
Contradiction! Therefore, there are infinitely many
primes
70
Proof Techniques

71
Proof Techniques
Proof of Biimplications
To prove a theorem of the form x (P(x)
Q(x )), where D is the domain of the
discourse, consider an arbitrary but fixed
element a from D. For this a, prove that the
biimplication P(a) Q(a) is true
The biimplication p q is equivalent to
(p q) (q p)
Prove that the implications p q and q p
are true
Assume that p is true and show that q is true
Assume that q is true and show that p is true
72
Proof Techniques
Proof of Equivalent Statements
Consider the theorem that says that statements
p,q and r are equivalent
Show that p q, q r and r p
Assume p and prove q. Then assume q and prove
r Finally, assume r and prove p
Or, prove that p if and only if q, and then q if and
only if r
Other methods are possible
73
Algorithms
Definition: step-by-step problem-solving process in which a
solution is arrived at in a finite amount of time
All algorithms have the following properties:
Input : For example, a set of numbers to find the sum of
the numbers
Output : For example, the sum of the numbers
Precision : Each step of the algorithm is precisely defined
Uniqueness : Results of each step are unique and depend
on the input and results of previous step
Finiteness : Algorithm must terminate after executing a
finite number of steps
Generality : Algorithm is general in that it applies to a set
of inputs
74
Algorithms
Pseudocode Conventions
The symbol := is called the assignment operator
Example: The statement x := a is read as assign the value a
to x or x gets the value a or copy the value of a into x
x := a is also known as an assignment statement
Control Structures
One way-selection
if booleanExpression then statement
If booleanExpression evaluates to true, statement is
evaluated
Two way-selection
if booleanExpression then statement1
else statement2
If booleanExpression evaluates to true , statement1
executes,
otherwise statement2 executes

75
Algorithms
Control Structures
The while loop takes the form:
while booleanExpression do loopBody
The booleanExpression is evaluated. If it evaluates
to true, loopBody executes. Thereafter loopBody
continues to execute as long as booleanExpression
is true
The for loop takes the form:
for var := start to limit do loopBody
var is an integer variable. The variable var is set to
the value specified by start. If var limit, loopBody
executes. After executing the loopBody , var is
incremented by 1. The statement continues to
execute until var > limit

s
76
Algorithms
Control Structures
The do/while loop takes the form:
do loopBody while booleanExpression
The loopBody is executed first and then the
booleanExpression is evaluated. The loopBody
continues to execute as long as the
booleanExpression is true
77
Algorithms
Block of Statement
To consider a set of statements a single
statement, the statements are written between the
words begin and end
begin
statement1
statement2
...
statementn;
end
78
Algorithms
Return Statement
The return statement is used to return the value
computed by the algorithm and it takes the following
form:
return expression;
The value specified by expression is returned. In an
algorithm, the execution of a return statement also
terminates the algorithm
Read and Print Statements
read x;
Read the next value and store it in the variable x
print x;
Output the value of x

s
79
Algorithms
Arrays (List)
A list is a set of elements of the same type
The length of the list is the number of elements in the list
L[1...n ]. L is an array of n components, indexed 1 to n . L[i ]
denotes the i
th
element of L
For data in tabular form, a two-dimensional array is used:
M[1...m,1...n ] M is a two-dimensional array of m rows
and n columns
The rows are indexed 1 to m and the columns are
indexed 1 to n
M[i,j] denotes the (i,j)
th
element of M, that is, the element
at the i
th
row and j
th
column position

80
Algorithms
Subprograms (Procedures)
In a programming language,an algorithm is implemented in
the form of a subprogram, a.k.a. a subroutine or a module
Two types of subprograms
Functions
Returns a unique value
Procedure
Other types of subprograms
body of the function or procedure is enclosed between the
words begin and end
the execution of a return statement in a function terminates
the function
81
Algorithms
Comments
In describing the steps of an algorithm, comments are
included wherever necessary to clarify the steps
Two types of comments: single-line and multi-line
Single-line comments start anywhere in the line
with the pair of symbols //
Multi-line comments are enclosed between the pair
of symbols /* and */
Specifies what the algorithm does, as well as the input
and output
82
Algorithms
Polynomial Operations
Polynomial in one variable is

a
i
are real (or complex) and n is a non-negative integer
If p(x) = a
0
then p(x) is a constant polynomial
If p(x) is a nonzero constant polynomial, then the degree of p(x) is
defined to be 0
If p(x) is not constant and a
n
0, then n is called the degree of p(x);
that is, the degree of a non-constant polynomial is defined to be the
exponent of the highest power of x
The basic operations performed on polynomials are to add, subtract,
multiply, and divide polynomials, and to evaluate a polynomial at a
given point
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Chapter 1:

Foundations: Sets, Logic, and Algorithms

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