Fossil Fuels

Dr. Akepati S. Reddy Thapar University Patiala (Punjab) 147 004 INDIA

Fossil Fuels: Definition of Terms

Coal
Bituminous coal (also called soft coal): coal that burns easily with a smoky flame yielding pitch or tar (sub-bituminous coal) Anthracite: coal that contains a low percentage of volatile matter and burns with a smokeless flame and sub-anthracite Lignite: Soft, brownish-black coal in which texture of the original wood can often be seen; and it is intermediary, in density and amount of carbon, between peat and bituminous coal

Crude oil
Mixture of hydrocarbons present in natural underground reservoirs in the liquid phase; recoverable at typical atmospheric temperature and pressure Viscosity is <10,000 centipoises at reservoir conditions (extraheavy oil and natural bitumen have higher viscosity)

Natural gas liquids

Exist as constituents of natural gas Recovered in separators, field facilities or gas processing units Composition includes ethane, propane, butane, pentane, natural gasoline and condensate and small fraction of nonhydrocarbons

Fossil Fuels: Definition of Terms (contd..)

Natural gas Present in gaseous phase or in solution in the crude oil in the underground reservoirs, but recoverable as gas under typical atmoshperic temperature and pressure conditions Oil Shale Sedimentary rocks with high proportion of OM (kerogen) Synthetic oil or gas is recovered through heating and processing Natural bitumen It is either waxy or hard and brittle and occur as natural asphalt also known as tar sand or oil sand Has very high viscosity (enriched with heavy molecules) Mined/obtained either as raw bitumen or as synthetic crude oil Extra-heavy oil Petroleum with high viscosity (>10,000 centipoises) Peat soft organic material consisting of partially decayed plant matter together with deposited minerals land with depth of the peat layer >20 cm after draining or >30 cm when undrained is known as peat land

Fossil Fuels
Fossil fuels are fund resources Well developed technologies are available for exploiting fossil fuels to produce energy services converting into various other forms of energy ameliorating effects of fossil fuel use on environment Fossil fuel use Meet 80% of worlds energy needs (thermal power plants, captive power in industry, steam generation, transportation Feed stock for chemicals and plastics
Fuel Coal Oil Natural gas Hydroelectric nuclear

Consumption patterns of fossil fuels

1937 1988 45 quads 12 quads 3 quads < 1 quads . 96 quads (30%) 121 quads (38%) 65 quads (20%) 22 quads (7%) 17 quads (5%)

Fossil Fuels (contd..)

Problems with fossil fuels Finite supply - at the 1988 rates of consumption: coal for 1500 yrs; oil for 60 yrs; and natural gas for 120 yrs Burning of fossil fuels - global, regional and local environmental problems - coal contributes 50% of SO2 and 30% of NOx Preventing global warming requires Rapid and drastic reduction in fossil fuel combustion Shifting from coal to natural gas Increased efficiency of fossil fuel use Development of non-fossil fuel energy sources Prevention regional environmental problems Use of low sulfur coal Cleaning of coal to remove sulfur upto 30% Injecting lime stone into the boiler furnace Flue gas scrubbing (reduces efficiency - 37% to 34%) Lowering combustion temperature Catalytic reduction (by mixing NH3) of NOx to N2 & H2O

Fossil Fuels (contd..)

Efficiency increase in thermal power plants Atmospheric fluidized bed combustor Pressurized fluidized bed combustor and gas turbines combined cycle Integrated coal gasification combined cycle system (produce hydrogen and use fuel cell technology) Cogeneration tapping steam for heating purposes Substituting coal with natural gas Can facilitate smooth transition from fossil fuel technologies to non-fossil fuel technologies Uneven distribution of natural gas resources (security and stably priced sources of energy are preferred) Natural gas will last for 55 years rather than 120 years Natural gas is more expensive to purchase than coal Sequestering (capturing and disposing) CO2 1000 mile2 forest per 500 MW plant of 34% efficiency Recovery of CO2 from emissions and storing into deep oceans or depleted natural gas reservoirs (may make electricity costlier and ecological risks to oceans) Rationing CO2 emission reduction among nations (Industrial nations with 1/3 rd population contribute 80% of the green house gases)

Air pollution from combustion of fossil fuels: Comparison (kg of emissions/TJ energy)
Pollutant Nitrogen oxides Sulfur dioxide Particulate matter Natural gas <43 <0.3 <2 Oil <142 <430 <36 Coal <359 <731 <1333

Properties of Fossil Fuels

Coal analysis Proximate analysis concerned with finding percentage of moisture, volatile matter, fixed matter and ash Heating to 105C and maintaining for one hour for knowing moisture percentage Heating in a covered crucible and heating to 350C and maintaining for 7 minutes for knowing volatile matter percentage Heating in a uncovered crucible to 720C and maintaining until constant weight is reached Ultimate analysis finding chemical element composition Expressed as percentage of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), nitrogen(N), sulfur (S), moisture (M) and ash (A) Oil analysis Mixture of hydrocarbon compounds (paraffins, isoparaffins, cycloparaffins and aromatic compounds) frequently containing nitrogen, oxygen and sulfur; and even moisture and sediment Ultimate analysis: Carbon 83-87%; hydrogen 11-16%; oxygen 0-7%; nitrogen 0-7% and sulfur 0-4%.

Properties of Fossil Fuels (contd..)

Coal properties
Swelling index: depending on whether coal after release of volatile matter becomes soft and pasty or not coals are categorized as caking coals (coals with low swelling index) and free burning coals (coals with high swelling index) Grindability index: inversely related to the power required for grinding the coal for standard coal it is taken as 100 Weatherability: crumbling property of coal on stockpiling Ash softening temperature

Oil properties
Specific gravity Viscosity Pour point: the lowest temperature at which oil will flow under standard pressure conditions Flash point: the lowest temperature at which oil can be ignited

Properties of Fossil Fuels (contd..)

Heating value Can be expressed on as received basis, dry basis or ash free dry basis Heat transfer due to complete combustion and cooling of the products of combustion to the temperature of coal and air Bomb calorimeter is employed Expressed either as higher heating value (HHV) or as lower heating value (LHV) In HHV condensation of water vapour of the combustion gases is assumed In LHV vapour condensation not assumed LHV = HHV mass of H2O vapour x latent heat of vapourization Mass of water vapour = M + 9H + specific humidity of the combustion air x amount of combustion air Dulong and Petit formula for HHV of high ranking coal (in MJ/kg) 33.83C+144.45(H-O/8)+9.38S C,H,O & S are in fractions For lower rank coals this formula underestimates the HHV

Fossil Fuels: Coal

Size of the resource base is not restraining factor but the following: Development of production facilities and infrastructure (according to 1998 survey) International, regional and national environmental policies according to 2001 survey) Coal supplies 23% of the total global primary energy demand Two major users for coal - steel production (70% of the steel produced) - electricity production (38% of global electricity) Coal - most carbon intensive fuel of fossil fuels, and UNFCCC (including Kyoto protocol) demands improved coal technology and efficiency Capturing and sequestering carbon by-products Carbon sequestering technologies

Lignite is low ranking coal and anthracite high rank coal (% fixed carbon increases and % volatile matter decreases) Anthracite has 86% fixed carbon - bituminous coal 46-86% (20-40% VM) - lignite 30% moisture & high VM (peat has up to 90% moisture)

Proven recoverable Coal Reserves

Reserves that can be recovered under the present and expected local economic conditions with existing available technologies Coal reserves status of the world and individual countries as on 1999 is given in slides-x & y 90% of the total reserves are concentrated in 10 countries (95% of bituminous coal and 85% of sub-bituminous and lignite coals) If present exploitation rate continues can last for 200 years Bituminous coal reserves status has slightly increased (by 2%) between 1996 and 1999 But, sub-bituminous and lignite coal reserves have declined by 1% and 3% respectively Coal reserves status change has occurred in 9 countries: Australia (%), Canada (23%), Hungary (reserves are brought down to almost nil), India (+13%), Poland (+68%), Romania (subbituminous coal is reduced to 35 million ton (Mt) from 810 Mt, and lignite coal to 1421 Mt from 2800 Mt), South Africa (-10%), Turkey (reserves of sub-bituminous and lignite coals have increased by three time), and USA (+4%). Proven recoverable coal reserves size is influenced certain extraneous factors (limits and restrictions imposed on coal use can affect through coal prices

Proved recoverable coal reserves as on 1999

(in million tons)
Bituminous coal Sub-bitu(including anthracite) minous coal Africa North america South america Asia India Europe Middle east Oceania Total world 55,171 120,222 7,738 179,040 82,396 112,596 1,710 42,585 519,062 193 102,375 13,890 38,688 -----119,109 -----2,046 Lignite 3 35,369 124 34,580 2,000 80,981 -----38,033 Total coal 55,367 (6%) 257,966 (25%) 21,752 (2.2%) 252,308 (25%) 84,396 312,686 (30%) 1,710 82,664 984,453

276,301 189,090

Coal production during 1999 (in thousand tons)

Bituminous coal Sub-bitu(including anthracite) minous coal Africa North america South america Asia India Europe Middle east Oceania Total world 230,581 607,164 45,383 1,481,084 292,203 421,654 1,500 223,630 3,010,996 64 384,238 470 ----------17,870 Lignite -----88,229 -----22,212 -----66,010 Total coal 230,645 1,079,631 45,853 1,670,448 314,415 1,007,564 1,500 307,510 4,343,151

30,360 159,004 104,563 481,347

537,565 794,590

Coal consumption during 1999 (in thousand tons)

Bituminous coal Sub-bitu(including anthracite) minous coal Africa North america South america Asia India Europe Middle east Oceania Total world 165,640 547,931 22,580 1,725,968 308,160 573,979 11,300 45,325 3,092,723 20 386,069 7,560 ----------17,860 Lignite -----86,800 -----22,200 -----66,060 Total coal 165,660 1,020,000 30,140 1,922,912 330,360 1,129,758 11,300 129,245 4,409,815

38,797 158,147 71,753 484,026

522,059 795,033

Coal reserves and production & production Status in key countries during 1999
USA Russia China India Australia Germany South Africa Poland Japan Coal reserves Production Comsuption (in million tons) (in thousand tons) (in thousand tons) 249,994 997,090 947,400 157,010 114,500 84,396 82,090 66,000 49,520 22,160 773 249,400 1,030,000 314,415 304,000 201,782 223,510 171,000 3,906 237,000 1,080,000 330,360 126,900 227,835 153,460 149,800 137,000

Fossil fuels: Crude Oil Reserves

Proven recoverable reserves is a dynamic concept and depends on
technological advances technical costs Prices of crude

Two types of reserves: land based and off-shore At the current rate of production the reserves last for 40 years Between 1996-99 oil reserves have reduced by 2.7%, but Africa and South America have experienced 4% increase Since 1990 discovered reserves are lesser than oil production
Only 62% between 1990-94 Only 52% between 1995-99

Potential of deep off-shore reserves is not yet clearly known

Depth of production during 1978 was 300m but in 1998 it was 1800m; in future it may go up to 3000m

Refining of oil
Light fraction: gasoline, aviation fuel, kerosene, LDO, HSD (high speed diesel), heavy diesel oil and lubrication oil for transportation, powering machines and residential uses) Heavier fraction as boiler fuel and in chemical production

Global reserves, production and consumption Of crude oil and natural liquid gas in 1999 (in million tons)
Proven recoverable reserves 10,122 8,573 13,370 8,183 645 9,495 92,242 502 142,487 Production Consumption 358.9 619.9 331.1 395.0 36.7 636.3 1046.5 30.6 3418.6 113.7 1,024.4 209.4 878.3 79.6 887.4 316.6 41.8 3471.6

Africa North America South America Asia India Europe Middle east Oceania Total world

Reserves, production and consumption of crude oil and natural gas liquids in 1999 (in million tons)
Country USA Japan China Russia Korean republic Germany Saudi Arabia Italy Canada France United Kingdom Brazil India Proven recoverable reserves 3,728 8 4,793 6,654 -----42 35,983 61 779 21 665 1,172 645 Production Consumption 353.8 0.6 160.2 304.8 -----2.7 409.6 5.0 89.8 1.7 137.1 55.8 36.7 799.7 216.0 188.0 172.5 120.3 106.6 105.0 92.4 90.8 84.0 83.2 83.2 79.6

Natural Gas as a Transition Fuel

Because of climate change and local air quality problems we will be moving toward less carbon intensive energy sources
Non-carbon emitting energy sources Availability of technologies and their cost-effectiveness would constrain this movement

A cleaner fossil fuel and offers at least partial solution to climate change and poor air qaulity
Once considered as waste product of oil production Free from ash and releases no SPM and less of NOx and SO2 Combustion can be complete and produces little smoke Contains volatile paraffins (methane to pentane) has high Hydrogen to Carbon ratio - produces high amount of water vapour Heat of combustion is 33.5-40MJ/Nm3 and SG is 0.63 of air

Emits lesser quantities of GHGs (20% lesser than oil and 50% lesser than coal)
During processing and compressing the gas During transmission and distribution as fugitive emissions Deliberate blow-down or release during maintenance operations During day-to-day operations while combusting

 Can play an important energy transition role Can bridge the current fossil energy with the future noncarbon emitting renewable energy

Natural Gas as Transition Fuel (contd..)

Challenges associated with natural gas industry

Need to increase efficiency
Combined cycle can increase efficiency from 40% to 80%) Use of hydrogen fuel cells in automobiles (natural gas can be source of hydrogen and methane as hydrogen carrier)

Handling of acid gas generated from stripping of natural gas (to obtain marketable gas)
can be disposed through re-injection into suitable underground formation or depleted reservoir)

Advanced and cheap liquified natural gas technology is needed to facilitate transport
only 25% of production is exported as LNG in 1999 about 20% of the production goes unutilized)

Reserves of Natural Gas

Proven recoverable reserves are raising (70 trillion m3 in 1980 and 150 trillion m3 in 1999) - Exact size of reserves is still not clear - Between 1996 and 99 reserves went up by 2.8% (for Africa and Oceania the figures are 13% and 11% respectively) - Proven reserves at current of production can last for 55 years - Study by International Gas Union showed reserves will be available for > 100 years Production is also steadily increasing since 1990 (by 4.1% between 1996 and 99 and the increase is expected to continue and accelerate beyond 2000 AD There is increase in consumption specially in the Asia-pacific region by 6.1% (10.9% in China) and African continent (9.1%)

Reserves, production and consumption of natural gas in 1999 (in billion cubic meters)
Proved Gross recoverable production reserves Africa North America South America Asia India Europe Middle East Oceania Total world 11,400 7,943 6,299 17,106 647 53,552 53,263 1,939 151,502 238.5 946.8 136.7 350.5 28.0 969.6 286.7 42.6 2,971.4 Net Consumption production 116.8 750.5 81.9 309.7 19.5 907.4 193.3 37.6 2,397.2 55.6 745.7 79.4 342.6 19.5 957.1 180.4 27.5 2,388.3

Reserves, production and consumption of natural gas in 1999 (in billion cubic meters)
Country Russia Iran Qatar UAE Saudi Arabia USA Algeria Venezuela Nigeria Iraq India Proved recoverable reserves 47,730 24,308 10,900 6,003 5,777 4,740 4,522 4,152 3,575 3,110 647 Gross Net Consumption production production 599.9 94.7 31.3 50.3 48.7 672.7 152.8 57.1 30.7 4.4 28.0 589.7 53.0 24.0 38.0 46.2 527.3 82.8 26.8 7.0 3.2 19.5 388.7 55.5 15.9 31.4 46.2 614.3 22.2 26.8 6.2 3.2 19.5

Fossil Fuels: Oil Shale

Oil Shale: Sedimentary rocks containing a high proportion of organic matter (kerogen) which can be recovered as synthetic oil or gas by processing when heated to high temperature, kerogen is converted into liquid and processing of this liquid results in synthetic oil (oil superior to lower grade oil but inferior to higher grade oil) Two techniques for oil shale production In-situ fracturing and heating to obtaining gases and liquids from the wells Mining oil shale, transporting to the processing unit where it is heated to 450oC for producing synthetic oil and gas Mined oil shale is also directly burnt as very low grade high ash content fuel Problems associated with oil shale as energy source production demands energy for blasting, transport, crushing, heating and adding hydrogen generates huge quantities of waste that requires safe disposal (average yield of oil from shale may be 10 to 170 kg/ton) Oil shale reserves and its production and consumption details are shown on a separate slide

Proved recoverable reserves, production and consumption Oil Shale during 1999 (in million tons)
Country Morocco (Africa) USA (North America) Proved recoverable reserves 500 60,000-80,000 Production ----------195 ----------151 ---------------5 consumption ---------------------------------------------------

Brazil (South America) -----Thailand (Asia) Turkey (Asia) Estonia (Europe) Ukraine (Europe) Israel (Middle East) Jordan (Middle East) Australia (Oceania) 810 269 -----300 600 4,000 1,725

Fossil Fuels: Natural Bitumen and Extra Heavy Oil

Natural bitumen Comprises of bitumen or other petroleum constituents and has very high viscosity have relatively less of light ends of petroleum and enriched with heavy molecules may contain non-hydrocarbons such as nitrogen, sulfur, oxygen and metals such as nickel and vanadium It is either waxy or hard and brittle and occur as natural asphalt also known as tar sand or oil sand Not recoverable by conventional means, and mined/obtained either as raw bitumen or as synthetic crude oil Extra-heavy oil Petroleum with high viscosity (>10,000 centipoises) Proven recoverable reserves, production and consumption of natural bitumen extra-heavy oil during 1999 are given in a separate slide

Proved recoverable reserves, production and consumption Natural Bitumen during 1999 (in million tons)
Country Proved recoverable Production consumption reserves 30 3.3 -------------------------------

Canada (North America) 979 Venezula (South America) Romania (Europe) Jordan (Middle East) 373 1 5

Fossil Fuels: Peat

Peat: soft organic material consisting of partially decayed plant matter together with deposited minerals. Peatland: land with depth of the peat layer >20 cm after draining or >30 cm when undrained Peat is a slowly renewing source that can be used both as fuel (mostly used locally) and as medium for plant growth (horticultural peat) Is peat a biomass fuel or a fossil fuel and should it be considered as renewable source of energy Peat land after exploitation for peat is usually used for agriculture (which sequesters carbon) Peatlands are usually drained, slashed, burned and used for agriculture (rice cultivation) Harvested peat involves draining of the peatland and processing of the harvested into the following types of peat fuels: Sod peat (slabs of air dried peat mostly used as household fuel) Milled peat (used as power station fuel or for making briquettes) Peat briquettes (highly compressed blocks of peat used mainly as household fuel)

Fossil Fuels: Peat (contd..)

Environmental consequences of extraction and use of peat Drainage from a peatland is loaded with suspended solids and nutrients and can contaminate surface water bodies Burning peat is associated with the emission of SO2 and NOx and of carbon (peat however has low SO2, and there are new boiler technologies for controlling NOx emissions) Peat reserves and its production and consumption It is an important source of energy at least in Europe till 1950s cheap oil and coal has affected its competitiveness Peat reserves and its production and consumption during 1999 are shown in separate slides Peat reserves are quoted on the peat land area basis (knowledge about organic matter fraction, moisture level and ash content can facilitate quoting the reserves in standard energy units) Production and consumption of peat is expressed in tons of air dried peat (with 35-55% moisture) In 1999, 113,000 hectares of peatland has been used for harvesting peat as energy resource and 113,000 hectares of peatland for harvesting horticultural peat

Global Peat Reserves & their Production and Consumption

Peatland area (in Peat production thousand (in thousand tons) hectares) Africa North America South America Asia Europe Middle East Oceania Total world 5,841 135,422 6240 33,188 87,651 2,085 964 271,391 12 -----15 1,136 20,105 ----------21,268 Consumption (in thousand tons) 12 -----15 1,120 16,288 ----------17,435

Peat Resources Worldwide (IEA Coal Research, 1993)

Peat Reserves and their Production and Consumption of key countries

Country Peatland area (in Peat production thousand (in thousand tons) hectares) 111,328 56,800 27,000 21,400 8,900 6,400 100 1,180 1,008 1,044 902 -----3,220 536 -----7,927 1,117 -----2,927 716 600 575 Consumption (in thousand tons) -----2,847 520 -----6,849 1,100 -----2,232 502 600 345

Canada Russian federation Indonesia USA Finland Sweden India Irland Ukraine China Estonia