CIMMYT International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center

Conservation Agriculture-Based Hubs

PRINCIPLES AND FOCUS

Ken Sayre
Agronomist - Conservation Agriculture-Based Crop Management

SOME REVIEW

Why Conservation Agriculture (CA)

Stabilize/Reverse Widespread Soil Degradation to Enhance Sustainability of Natural Resources Land, Water and Air Enhance Water Use Efficiency for both Rainfed and Irrigated Crop Production Systems Increase Crop Productivity through Increasing Time and Input Use Efficiency

Reduce Production Costs for Farmers and Improve Family Livelihoods

Conservation Agriculture is not a Separate Scientific Discipline or Department or Institute but it is based on a set of
Defined Principles that Should Be Applied by Crop Management Scientists to Better Insure the Development of Sustainable Crop Management Practices for Different Cropping Systems

There are Four Primary Principles that Provide the Basis for Conservation Agriculture

CA Principle One
Dramatic reductions in tillage
Goal Determine the appropriate, minimal level of tillage for a cropping system with zero till as a potential goal.

CA Emphasizes Dramatic Tillage Reductions

Conventional Till System CA-based, Zero Till System

INDIA Turbo-Happy Zero Till Seeder

Chinese Strip Till Seeding Rainfed Maize After Wheat in Mexico with a Chinese 2-Wheel Tractor

Conservation Agriculture Means Dramatic Tillage Reductions- CottonWheat Systems in Uzbekistan

Conventional Till Raised Bed Systems CA-based Permanent Raised Bed Systems

CA Principle Two
Retention of adequate. rational levels of crop residues on the soil surface Ultimate Goal Retain sufficient residue on the soil surface to reduce soil erosion, improve soil parameters and enhance crop/water productivity to better insure long term, sustainable production

Extensive tillage combined with inadequate crop residue retention on the soil surface leads to soil degradation by erosion from wind and water Wind erosion Water erosion

Planting Zero Till Rainfed Wheat after Maize with Full Residue Retention in the Rainfed Highlands of Mexico
Maize Residue Management Zero Till Wheat Seeding in Maize Residue

Extensive tillage combined with inadequate crop residue retention on the soil surface can lead to extreme water loss by runoff and evaporation
Conventional Till Zero Till

Effect of inadequate versus adequate retention of crop residues on the soil surface for rainfed maize in the Central Highlands of Mexico
Zero Till without Residues Zero Till with Residues

CA Principle Three:
Use of proper and profitable crop rotations
Ultimate Goal Economically viable, diversified crop rotations that can offer farmers new options to reduce risk

CA Emphasizes Diversified and Economical Crop Rotation Options for Farmers

Zero Till Wheat Zero Till Chickpea

Zero Till Maize

Zero Till Dry Beans

CA Emphasizes Diversified and Economical Crop Rotation Options for Farmers

Zero Till Soybean Irrigated Canola on Perm. Raised beds

Alfalfa on Perm. Raised beds

Zero Till Cotton

These Three CA Principles when Properly Used Encourage Sustainable Soil Management
Chemical Soil Quality

Physical Soil Quality

Soil Organic Matter

Biological Soil Quality

Comparison of Soils Conventional Tilled Versus CA-Based Zero Tilled after 7 Years
Conv. Till Degraded Soil CA-based Zero till - Healthy Soil

But before farmers are willing to adopt new technologies based on these first three CA principles, they must be confident that they will gain immediate economic benefits

CA Principle Four:
Farmer must perceive the potential for imminent improved economic benefits and livelihoods from the new, CA-based technologies

Farmers Must Know that there is an Economic Benefit before they will adopt CA
Comparison of average rainfed wheat yields for the most common farmer practice versus the best improved practice (1996 to 2005)
Returns Above Variable Costs

Comparison economic returns for rainfed wheat from 1996 to 2005 for the most common farmer practice versus the best improved practice (Mexican Pesos) 3,500 Farmer Practice3,000 Continuous Wheat, 2,500 Conventional 2,000 Till, Residues Removed 1,500 1,000 500 (500) Improved Practice; Maize-Wheat; Zero Till; Residues Retained

6500
Grain Yield (kg/ha)

6000 5500 5000 4500 4000 3500 3000

Farmer PracticeContinuous Wheat, Conventional Till, Residues Removed Improved Practice; Maize-Wheat; Zero Till; Residues Retained

The Four Basic principles of Conservation Agriculture Provide the Foundation to Manage Different Production Systems in a Sustainable Way

But

These underlying CA principles are not site specific and can be applied to essentially all crop production systems with the development of specific crop management practices for each specific system

The Four Principles of Conservation Agriculture Provide the Foundation to Develop and Apply the CA-based Crop Management Appropriate Crop Management Component Technologies Must be Specifically Developed for Each Crop Production System
Appropriate Crop Residue Management Appropriate Pest and Disease Management Appropriate Seeders/other Implements Other Relevant Crop Management Components

Appropriate Fertilizer Management

Selection of Appropriate Cultivars

Appropriate Irrigation Management

Appropriate Weed Control Practices

Dramatic Reductions In Tillage

Retention of Adequate Levels of Residues on the Soil

Economically Viable Diversification of Crop Rotations

Perception of Economic Benefits by Farmers

The Foundation for the Development of Suitable CA-based Crop Management Technologies

HOW CAN CA-BASED TECHNOLOGIES BE DELIVERED TO FARMERS?

DELIVERY OF CA-BASED TECHNOLOGIES TO FARMERS

WHY MUST FARMERS PARTICIPATE IN THIS PROCESS?

Normal Research and Development Systems are Linear

However, the linear flow of knowledge which has commonly been used by researchers and extension agents may work for delivery of new crop cultivars etc but is not effective for the transfer and farmer adoption of more comprehensive, integrated technologies like CA-based technologies.

Tasa de crecimiento del PIB agrcola (1997-2001) (%)

7.0

6.0

Dominican Republic Panama Peru Nicaragua Chile Ecuador Brazil

5.0

4.0

3.0
Costa Rica Guatemala Argentina LAC Bolivia Venezuela Paraguay Colombia Honduras

2.0

1.0

El Salvador
0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0

0.0

Gasto Pblico en Agricultura como % del PIB, promedio 1997-2001

e.

Source: Valdes, 2008a, Agricultural Public Spending: Description and Assessment Relevant to Latin America, using FAO, 2005b, Base de Datos de estadsticas e indicadores del gasto publico agrcola y rural (GPAGRURAL), Oficina regional para American Latina y el Caribe, Santiago. Agricultural GDP growth rates are based on World Development Indicators Database, World Bank.

The Research and Development System that is Best suited for CA-based technologies is integrated and interlinks the needed partners
Innovation systems involving multiple agents (especially including farmers), each registering their expectations and contributing their own comparative advantage towards resolving the problem of developing functional CA systems.
Machinery Manufacturers

Input Suppliers
Innovative Farmers

Extension (Change) Agents

Research ers

Equipmen t Developer s

But What Does This Really Mean? How Can This Approach Actually Provide Small and Medium-Scale Farmers, With Sustainable, Economical CA-based Crop Management Technologies

Real Situation - All the Players with the Farmer in the Middle with Almost No Say in What Goes On
NGOs

? ? ?

Socioeconomist s

Governmen t Policy Makers

Private Sector Input Dealers

Farmers with Different Crop Production Systems and Different Economic Capabilities

? ? ? ?
International Organizations CG Centers FAO IFAD etc

NARS Researc h Institute s

Precision Agricultur e

Private Sector Input Dealers

?
Politicians

?
Many Others

Implement Manufacturer s and Dealers

In Mexico, CIMMYT has developed the concept of the

CA-based Research and Delivery Hub

approach to effectively involve researchers working in a multi/interdisciplinary manner with farmers, agriculture leaders, private sector and other needed partners.

Strategies to Develop and Deliver Conservation Agriculture-Based Crop Management Technologies to Farmers

CA-BASED HUBS TO DELIVER TECHNOLOGIES TO FARMERS WITH FARMER PARTICIPATION

Conceptually Our View Regarding the CAbased Hub Strategy Is as Illustrated Below
Connection to Researchers (Gov and Non-Gov) Direct Participation of Interested Stakeholders and Partners in the CAbased Hub Activities
Farmer Module s
FARMERS FARMERS

Farmer Module s

FARMERS

Adaptive Research and Delivery Platform Trial

FARMERS

FARMERS

Farmer Module s

FARMERS

FARMERS

Farmer Module s

Farmer Module s

Farmer Module s

In our CA-based Hubs in Mexico, Farmers are Involved in the Whole Process Starting from:
The Strategic Research Activities on Experiment Stations Through Component Technology Studies Though Adaptive Research and Delivery Platform Trials Through Determining the Best Bet CA-based Technologies to Test in Farmer Fields in the Farmer Modules Through Fine Tuning of these Technologies in Farmer Fields Through Delivery of Tested Technologies in the Farmer Modules to Surrounding Farmers

Once a Crop Production System in a Defined Area has Been Selected to Develop Appropriate CA-Based Technologies :
We Establish a CA-based Hub with an Adaptive Research and Delivery research platform While at The Same Time
We Immediately Identify Interested, Innovative Farmers to Begin to Test Best Bet CA-based Technologies in Modules in Their Fields

CA-BASED RESEARCH AND DELIVERY HUB

Farmer Field Adaptive Research and Demonstration Modules

CA-based Agricultural Machinery Development

FARMERS Adaptive Research and Delivery Platform Trial/s Long Term Multi-disciplinary Adaptive Research, Implement Testing and Demonstration and Training Farmer Practices Best Bet 1 Best Bet 2 Best Bet x

Farmer Field Adaptive Research and Demonstration Modules

NARS/Private Sector/NGO Involvement

Breeding and Testing of different Cultivars
Farmer Field Adaptive Research and Demonstration Modules

FARMERS

FARMERS

FARMERS

FARMERS

FARMERS

Soils and Agronomy Component Technology Studies

Farmer Field Adaptive Research and Demonstration Modules

FARMERS FARMERS FARMERS FARMERS

Socio-economic Input/Evaluations

Weed ,disease and Pest Management Component Technology Studies

Once a Crop Production System has Been Selected within a Defined Geographical Area to Develop Appropriate CA-Based Technologies and the Needed Partners (Farmers and Other Needed Stakeholders) have been Identified
We Initiate Activities in the CA-based Research and Delivery Hub Involving:
Establishment of Adaptive Research and Delivery Platform Trial/s and identification of interested stakeholders and farmers to participate in the inter/multidisciplinary activities in these Platform Trials
These platform trial/s can be established in an experiment station, in a farmer field, in fields managed by groups or associations of farmers (perhaps the optimum situation) or any other viable field situation but should have at least an initial 5 year time perspective. Identification of a series of interested and innovative farmers to manage the Adaptive Research and Delivery Farmer Modules associated with each Platform Trial in fields of these farmers Identification of interested farmers surrounding each Adaptive Research and Delivery Module who will learn from the module farmers and adopt the useful CA-based practices that the observe This process must be a bottoms-up approach with the full, initial participation of the farmers and other stakeholders, not a top-down approach driven by officials (both national and international) at the top

Cd. Obregn Irrigated 39 m Sinaloa Irrigated 50 m

Locations in Mexico where CIMMYT Currently has five CAbased Hubs in Operation

Two more are planned by end of 2011

Mexico
El Bajio Irrigated 1500 m
Mexico City

CIMMYT Headquarters El Batn Dry Land Low Rainfall 2249 m

Toluca Dry Land High Rainfall 2640 m

CA-BASED RESEARCH AND DELIVERY HUB Organization and Function of CA-based Adaptive Research and Delivery Platform Trials in Mexico
Farmer Field Adaptive Research and Demonstration Modules

CA-based Agricultural Machinery Development

FARMERS Adaptive Research and Delivery Platform Trial/s Long Term Multi-disciplinary Adaptive Research, Implement Testing and FARMERS Demonstration and Training, , Farmer Best Best Best Practices Bet 1 Bet Bet 2 x FARMERS

Farmer Field Adaptive Research and Demonstration Modules

FARMERS

NARS/Private Sector/NGO Involvement

Breeding and Testing of different Cultivars
Farmer Field Adaptive Research and Demonstration Modules

FARMERS

FARMERS

Soils and Agronomy Component Technology Studies

FARMERS FARMERS FARMERS FARMERS Farmer Field Adaptive Research and Demonstration Modules

Socio-economic Inputs/Evaluations

Weed ,disease and Pest Management Component Technology Studies

The Adaptive Research and Delivery Research and Delivery Platform Trial/s for each CA-based Hub provides Opportunities for Inter/Multidisciplinary Research and Development Activities for all the interested stakeholders to:
Develop and Test new, best bet CA-based crop management technology options sideby-side with the most common conventional farmer practices Better understand the long-term effects/benefits of these new CA-based technologies on sustainable production as compared to existing farmer practices Develop the needed specific crop management component technologies compatible with the new CA-based practices (weed control, residue management, machinery, fertilizer management, irrigation water management etc) Determine the potential economic benefits of the new CA technologies

Delineate the best CA-based crop management technologies for the module farmers to select to test in there Adaptive Research and Delivery Modules in their fields side-by-side
with there existing technology

Depending upon the Nature, Abilities and Interests of the Different Stakeholders Participating in a CA-based Hub in Mexico, there may be an Opportunity to have several Adaptive Research and Delivery Platform Trials within the Hub Along with their Associated, Surrounding Adaptive Research and Delivery Farmer Modules in these Farmers Fields

In these situations, these Adaptive Research and Delivery Trials are Linked Together as a Network of Platform Trials within the Hub

Using the CA-Based Research Platform Long Term Trial to Compare of Zero Till Seeding with and without Residue Retention

Using the CA-Based Research Platform Long Term Trial to Compare Different Kinds of Seeders for Zero Till Seeding

Testing and Development of the Multi-Crop/Multi-Use Prototype CA Implement in the Adaptive Research and Delivery Platform Trial in Cd. Obregon, Mexico
Planting Wheat and banding basal fertilizer Configured for Maize Planting

Side-dress banded N application for Wheat

Side-dress banded N application for Maize

Greenseeker NDVI-based Variable Rate Foliar N Fertilizer Application System

Using the CA-Based Adaptive Research and Delivery Platform Trial to Compare Different Technology Components for Rainfed Production Conditions in El Batan, Mexico
Tillage/Residue Levels in Permanent Beds Without Residue With Residue

Using the CA-Based Adaptive Research and Delivery Platform Trial to Compare Weed Control Strategies in El Batan, Mexico
Conventional Till Maize; No Residue Zero Till Maize; With Residues

Using the CA-Based Adaptive Research and Delivery Platform Trial to Compare Different Technology Components for Rainfed Production Conditions in Toluca, Mexico
Narrow Permanent Raised Beds (0.75 m furrow to furrow) Wide Raised beds (1.5m furrow to furrow)

Comparison of the Efficiency of Rain Water Use for Conventional Farm Practices versus C A-based Practices in Year with Very Low Rainfall (CA-based Adaptive Research and Delivery Platform Trial in El Batan, Mexico)
Conventional Tillage with Crop Residues Removed Zero Tillage with Crop Residues Retained

Using the CA-Based Adaptive Research and Delivery Platform Trial for Long Term Trial Multidisciplinary Research (nearly 40 Ph D and M Sc Theses have been carried out in the Platform Trials in Mexico
Student Thesis Research With Green Seeker in Obregon On-going Project Research in El Batan

Using the CA-Based Adaptive Research and Delivery Platform Trial in Cd. Obregon, Mexico to Compare Planting Method by Wheat Genotype Interactions (tilled raised beds versus permanent raised beds) for Furrow Irrigate Production Conditions

SOME EXAMPLES OF RESULTS FROM SOME OF THE ADAPTIVE RESEARCH AND DELIVERY PLATFORM TRIALS IN THE CA-BASED HUBS IN MEXICO

Effect of contrasting tillage, residue and rotation management practices of rainfed wheat yields over 11 years under optimum management at El Batan, Mexico from 1996 to 2006
8500
Grain Yield (kg/ha)

7500 6500 5500 4500 3500 2500 1500

LSD (0.05) = 475 kg/ha

1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

Farmer Practice - Continuous Wheat: Conv. tillage: Residue Removed Best CA-based Practice - Wheat-Maize: Zero tillage: Residue Retained Worst Practice - Wheat-Maize: Zero tillage: Residue Removed

Effect of tillage and crop residue management on average bread wheat grain yield from 2001 to 2009 at CIANO, Cd. Obregon *
8000
Grain Yield (kg/ha)

LSD (0.05) = 101 kg/ha

7500 7000 6500 6000 5500 5000

Permanent Permanent Permanent Permanent Conventional Conventional beds - sub-soil beds + sub-soil beds - sub-soil beds + sub-soil till beds - sub- till beds - subblade; + blade; + blade; blade; soil blade; + soil blade; Residue Residue Residue Residue Residue Residue * Small scale sub-soil blade with side wings, used to about a 15-20 cm depth in the center of the bed to break possible compaction. Bed structure is maintained with no soil inversion.

Effect of Rotation, Tillage and Residue Management on Average Rainfed Wheat Grain Yields from 1997 to 2009 at El Batan in the Central Highlands of Mexico (Mean Annual Rainfall = 550mm)
6500
Grain Yield (kg/ha)

6000 5500 5000 4500 4000 3500 3000

LSD (0.05) = 235 kg/ha

Wh-Wh - Conv Wh-Wh - Zero Wh-Wh - Zero Wh-Mz - Zero Wh-Mz - Zero Wh-Mz - Zero Till - All Till - All Till - All Till - All Till - 50% of Till - All Residues Residues Residues Residues Residues Residues Removed Removed Retained Retained Retained Removed (Farmer Practice)

Rotation - Tillage - Residue Management

Effect of Rotation, Tillage and Residue Management on the Average Returns Above Variable Costs for Rainfed Wheat from 1997 to 2009 at El Batan in the Central Highlands of Mexico

3,500
Returns Above Variable Costs

3,000 2,500 2,000 1,500 1,000 500 (500)

Rotation - Tillage - Residue Management
Wh-Wh: C. T: Res Removed (Farmer Practice) Wh-Wh, Z T, Res Retained Wh-Mz; Z T; 50% Res Removed Wh-Wh; Z T; Res Removed Wh-Mz; Z T; Res Retained Wh-Mz; Z T; Res Removed

Effect of rotation, tillage and residue management for rainfed production systems on the distribution of soil wet aggregate distribution (0-20cm) at El Batan in the Central Highlands of Mexico

2.5
LSD (0.05) = 0.6 mm
MWD of Soil Wet Aggregates ( mm)

2 1.5 1 0.5 0
Wh-Wh - Conv. Till - Residue Removed (Farmer Practice) Wh-Wh - Zero Till - Residue Removed Wh-Wh - Zero Wh-Mz - Zero Till Wh-Mz - Zero Till Till - Residue - Residue - Residue Retained Removed Retained

Rotation - Tillage - Residue Management

18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

Effect of rotation, tillage and residue management for rainfed production systems on the "time to pond" during the 2005 crop cycle at El Batan in the Central Highlands of Mexico
LSD (0.05) = 2.5 seconds

Time to Pond (Seconds)

Wh-Wh - Conv. Wh-Wh - Zero Wh-Wh - Zero Wh-Mz - Zero Till - Residue Till - Residue Till - Residue Till - Residue Removed Removed Retained Removed (Farmer Practice) Rotation - Tillage - Residue Management

Wh-Mz - Zero Till - Residue Retained

Effect of tillage and residue management over seventeen years on average wheat grain yields with with optimum N management in theCA-based Adaptive Research and Delivery Platform Trial at Cd.Obregon, Mexico 8500 8000
Grain Yield (kg/ha)

7500 7000 6500 6000 5500 5000 4500 4000 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 Year of Harvest Conventional till beds - residues incorporated Permanent beds - residues burned Permanent beds - 70% residues removed Permanent beds - residues retained

Performance of Wheat Lines Developed by Parallel Selected by Zero and Conventional Tillage for irrigated conditions in Cd. Obregon, Mexico Effects of Cross, Tillage and Selection Systems on Grain Yield Averaged over 2005, 2006, 2005

6500

Grain yield (kg/ha)

6000

PB, S-ZT

PB, S-CT

5500

CB, S-ZT

CB, S-CT

5000

4500

Using the CA-Based Adaptive Research and Delivery Platform Trial to Train Technicians, Scientists and Farmers in El Batan, Mexico
Farmer Training Visiting Scientist Training

CA-BASED ADAPTIVE RESEARCH AND DELIVERY HUB

DEMONSTRATION AND ADAPTIVE RESEARCH IN MODULES IN FARMER FIELDS WITH SURROUNDING FARMERS
Farmer Field Adaptive Research and Demonstration Modules
FARMER

Farmer Field Adaptive Research and Demonstration Modules

FARMER

Farmer Field Adaptive Research and Demonstration Modules

FARMERS
Platform Trial/s for Long Term Multidisciplinary Adaptive Research, Implement Testing and Demonstration and Training, Farmer Practices
FARMER

FARMER

FARMERS

FARMERS

Best Bet 1

Best Bet 2

Best Bet x

FARMER

FARMERS Farmer Field Adaptive Research and Demonstration Modules FARMERS FARMERS
FARMER

Farmer Field Adaptive Research and Demonstration Modules

Farmer Field Adaptive Research and Demonstration Modules

THE ADAPTIVE RESEARCH AND DELIVERY MODULES PROVIDE THE VENUE:

To compare tested and farmer approved CA- based technologies side-by-side farmer practice To further fine-tune the CA-based technologies as needed in farmer fields in cooperation with the farmer To organize field day visits by surrounding farmers to see the farmer modules and to directly interact with the module farmers To utilize the field day visits to the module farmers to indentify surrounding farmers who are interested in testing the new CA-based technologies in their own farms

THE ADAPTIVE RESEARCH AND DELIVERY MODULES PROVIDE THE VENUE TO:
FINE-TUNE THE NEW CA-BASED TECHNOLOGIES PROVIDE THE OPPORTUNITY TO ORGANIZE VISITS IN THE MODULE FARMERS FIELDS FOR SURROUNDING FARMERS TO ASSIST:
THE FARMER WHO OWNS THE MODULE FIELD TO DEMONSTRATE AND DISCUSS THE NEW TECHNOLOGIES WITH THE NEIGHBORING FARMERS

THE EXTENSION OF THESE NEW TECHNOLOGIES TO THESE NEIGHBOR FARMERS

Comparisons of Farmer Practices and the Best Bet CAbased Technologies for Training Technicians, Scientists and Farmers in the Farmer Modules

Meeting with Farmers from Areas Surrounding the Farmer Modules to Identify Farmers Interested in Cooperating

Using the Farmer Modules to Train Farmers/Service Providers in the Operation of CAbased Seeders

Using the Comparisons of Farmer Practices and the Best Bet CAbased Technologies in a CA-based Adaptive Research and Delivery Module to Demonstrate to and Train Farmers from the Surrounding Seeding Practices
CA-based Technology Farmer Practice

Comparing Farmer Practices with the Best Bet CA-based Technologies for Grain Sorghum in Participating Farmer Fields in a Farmer Module in Cd. Obregon, Mexico
Irrigated Sorghum on Tilled Raised Beds (Farmer Practice) Best Bet CA- Irrigated Sorghum on Permanent Raised Beds

Comparing Farmer Practices with the Best Bet CA-based Technologies for Irrigated Wheat in Participating Farmer Fields in Cd. Obregon, Mexico
Farmer Practice with Tilled Beds CA-based Permanent Beds

Farmer Field Day for Harvest of Irrigated Wheat Demonstration Plots in a CA-based Adaptive Research and Delivery Farmer Module in Cd. Obregon, Mexico

Comparison of average wheat grain yields, variable production costs and returns over variable costs for wheat produced with conventional tilled beds versus permanent raised beds in farmer modules in Cd. Obregon, Mexico
Grain Yield (kg/ha at 12% H O) 2

8,000 7,500 7,000 6,500 6,000 5,500 5,000 4,500 4,000 3,500 3,000
4,011 4,985 6,245 6,926 6,356

8,000

Conventional tilled beds Permanent beds

6,550

7,500 7,000 6,500 6,000 5,500 5,000 4,500 4,000 3,500 3,000
Mexican pesos

Grain yield (kg/ha)

Production costs (Mexican pesos)

Returns over variable costs (Mexican pesos)

Comparison of CA-based Practices versus Farmer Practices in Farmer Modules Farmer Fields in the Central Highlands of Mexico
Cropping System Number of Modules in Farmer Fields CA-based Practices Average Maize Yield (kg/ha) Farmer Practice Average Maize Yield kg/ha CA-based Practices Returns Above Variable Costs (Mexican Pesos) Farmer Practice Returns Above Variable Costs (Mexican Pesos)

Irrigated Maize

19 29

8830 4830

6950 3000

17,154 5566

11,926 1853

Rainfed Maize

1US Dollar = 11.5 Mexican Pesos

WHEAT ON PERMANENT RAISED BEDS IN KAZAKHSTAN

Thanks