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Lot, or batch size: quantity that a supply chain stage either produces or orders at a given time. Cycle inventory is held primarily to take advantage of economies of scale in the supply chain and reduce cost within a supply chain. Cycle inventory: average inventory that builds up in the supply chain because a supply chain stage either produces or purchases in lots that are larger than those demanded by the customer Q = lot or batch size of an order D = demand per unit time
Inventory profile: plot of the inventory level over time It is assumed here that the demand is stable (while considering safety inventory, it is not so) Cycle inventory = Q/2 (depends directly on lot size) Average flow time = Average inventory / Average flow rate (Littles Law) = average length of time that elapses between the time material enters the supply chain to the point at which it exits. But, for any supply chain, average flow rate equals demand Thus, average flow time from cycle inventory = Q/(2D)
For this we first identify supply chain costs that are influenced by lot size. Supply chain costs influenced by lot size: Material cost = C (average price paid per unit purchased, increasing lot size might result in availing of price discounts and thus reduce material cost , $ per unit) Fixed ordering cost = S (such as administrative cost, trucking cost, labour cost, all costs that do not vary with the size of the order but are incurred every time an order is placed, e.g., $400 per truck, if a lot of 100 pairs, transportation cost will be $4/pair, whereas 1000 pairs means $0.40/pair, thus increasing the lot size decreases the fixed ordering cost per unit purchased, $ per lot) Holding cost = H = hC (a combination of the cost of capital, cost of physically storing the inventory, and the cost that results from the product being obsolete, reducing lot size and cycle inventory, reduces the holding cost, H: $ per unit per year, h = cost of holding $1 in inventory for one year)
How do you decide whether to go shopping at a convenience store or at Sams Club? When we need only a small quantity, we go to the nearby convenience store because the benefit of a low fixed cost outweighs the cost of the convenience stores higher prices. When we are buying a large quantity, however, we go to Sams Club (located far away), where the lower prices over the larger quantity purchased more than make up for the increase in fixed cost.
Lot sizing for a single product (EOQ) Aggregating multiple products in a single order Lot sizing with multiple products or customers Lots are ordered and delivered independently for each product Lots are ordered and delivered jointly for all products Lots are ordered and delivered jointly for a subset of products
H hC Q* n* T 2 DS H DH 2S
2S Q*/ D DH AFT Q * / 2 D
Example 1
Demand, D = 12,000 computers per year d = 1000 computers/month Unit cost, C = $500 Holding cost fraction, h = 0.2 (holding cost of 20%) Fixed cost, S = $4,000/order Q* = Sqrt[(2)(12000)(4000)/(0.2)(500)] = 980 computers Cycle inventory = Q*/2 = 490 Average flow time = average time each computer spends in inventory before it is sold = Q*/2d = 980/(2)(1000) = 0.49 month Reorder interval, T = 0.98 month No. of reorders per year = D/Q* = 12.24
Example 1 (continued)
Annual ordering and holding cost = = (12000/980)(4000) + (980/2)(0.2)(500) = $97,980 Suppose lot size is reduced to Q=200, which would reduce flow time: Annual ordering and holding cost = = (12000/200)(4000) + (200/2)(0.2)(500) = $250,000 To make it economically feasible to reduce lot size, the fixed cost associated with each lot would have to be reduced. Thus, if the fixed cost associated with each lot is reduced to $1000, the optimal lot size reduces to 490. Further, using a lot size of 1,100 (instead of 980), increases annual cost to $98,636. Even though the order size is more than 10% larger than the optimal order size Q*, the total cost increases by only 0.6%. Thus, total ordering and holding costs are relatively stable around the EOQ, that is, relatively insensitive to Q around Q*. Moreover, if demand increases by a factor k, the optimal lot size increases by a factor sqrt k. The number of orders placed per year should also increase by a factor sqrt k. However, flow time attributed to cycle inventory should decrease by a factor sqrt k.
In deciding the optimal lot size, the tradeoff is between setup (order) cost and holding cost. If demand increases by a factor of 4, it is optimal to increase batch size by a factor of 2 and produce (order) twice as often. Cycle inventory (in days of demand) should decrease as demand increases. If lot size is to be reduced, one has to reduce fixed order cost. To reduce lot size by a factor of 2, order cost has to be reduced by a factor of 4.
Suppose there are 4 computer products in the previous example: Deskpro, Litepro, Medpro, and Heavpro Assume demand for each is 1000 units per month If each product is ordered separately: Q* = 980 units for each product Total cycle inventory = 4(Q/2) = (4)(980)/2 = 1960 units Aggregate orders of all four products: Combined Q* = 1960 units For each product: Q* = 1960/4 = 490 Cycle inventory for each product is reduced to 490/2 = 245 Total cycle inventory = 1960/2 = 980 units Thus, lot size for each product, average flow time, inventory holding costs will be reduced
Three models of Store Manager: Best Buy with multiple models of computers (Litepro (L), Medpro (M), and Heavypro (H))
If each product manager orders his model independently (no aggregation high cost). The product managers jointly order every product in each lot (weakness low demand products are aggregated with high demand products in each order, resulting in high costs if the product-specific order costs for the low demand products is large). Product managers order jointly but not every order contains every product; that is, each lot contains a selected subsets of the products. Let us consider all the models.
Common transportation cost, S = $4,000 Product specific order cost (for each model ordered and delivered on the same truck, an additional fixed cost of $1000 is incurred for receiving and storage)
Delivery Options
each truck. All three models are included each time an order is
placed. So the annual ordering cost here is (S* x n) = (S + sL + sM + sH) x n.
Third model: Tailored Aggregation: Lots are ordered and delivered jointly for a selected subsets of the products on each truck Aggregate across products, supply points or delivery points.
Annual order cost = 9.75 $7,000 = $68,250 Annual total cost = $136,528 (down from $155,570, by about 13 per cent)
Case of W.W. Grainger: Aggregating four suppliers (each supplier, one product) per truck
Di = 10,000 h = 0.2 Ci = $50 Common order cost = S = $500 Supplier-specific order cost = $100 Combined order cost = S* = ($500+$100+$100+$100+$100) =$900 n* = Sqrt[( DihCi, i=1,..k)/2S*] = 14.91 (k = 4 here) Annual order cost per supplier = 14.91 x (900/4) = $3,354 Quantity ordered from each supplier = Q = 10,000/14.91 = 671 units per order Annual holding cost per supplier =(h CiQ)/2 = (0.2x50x671)/2 = $3,355 Thus, total capacity per truck = 4 x 671 = 2,684
Case of W.W. Grainger: Aggregating four suppliers (each supplier, one product) per truck: Introducing Capacity constraint
Compare the total load for the optimal n* with truck capacity. If the optimal load exceeds the truck capacity, n* is increased until the load equals the truck capacity. Further, by applying the formula n* = Sqrt[(SUM DihCi, i=1,..k)/2S*] for different values of k, we can also find the optimal number of items or suppliers to be aggregated in a single delivery. Thus, if truck capacity limit is 2500 units, the order frequency must be increased to ensure that the order quantity from each supplier is 2,500/4 = 625. Thus, W.W. Grainger should increase the order frequency to 10,000/625 = 16. This would increase the annual cost order cost per supplier to $3,600 and decrease the annual holding cost per supplier to #3,125.
Tailored aggregation
The first step is to identify the product that is to be ordered most frequently, assuming each product is ordered independently. For each successive product, we then identify orders in which it is included. Assumption: each product is included in the order at regular intervals. Once we have identified the most frequently ordered model, for each successive product i, we identify the frequency mi, where model i is ordered every mi deliveries. Each product i has an annual demand Di, a unit cost Ci, and a product specific order cost si. The common order cost is S. Using the same Best Buy data, product managers have decided to order jointly, but to be selective about which models they include in each order.
nL = sqrt ((DLhCL)/2(S+ sL)) = 11.0; similarly, nM = 3.5 and nH = 1.1 (L is most frequently ordered model, 11 times a year). (Put 1bar). The frequency with which M and H are included in L order are given as follows: nM = sqrt ((DMhCM/2 sM)) = 7.7 and nH = 2.4 (Put 2 bars) mM = nL/ nM (2 bars) = 11.0/7.7 = 1.4 (= 2) and similarly, mH = 4.5 (= 5) Therefore, L is included in every order, M in every 2nd order and H in every 5th order. Recalculate nL = n = sqrt ((DLhCLmL + DMhCM mM + DHhCH mH)/2(S + sL/mL + sM/ mM + sH/ mH)) = 11.47
Thus, recalculated nM = 11.47/2 = 5.74/year and nH = 11.47/5 = 2.29/year Thus, L will be ordered 11.47 times, L, 5.74 times, and H, 2.29 times/year. The annual holding cost of this policy = (((DL/2 nL) hCL) + ((DM/2 nM) hCM) + ((DH/2 nH) hCH) = $65,385.5 The annual order cost = nS + nL sL + nM sM + nH sH, (n = nL) For each, order size = D/n, cycle inventory = D/2n Total (annual order + holding) cost = $130,767
Aggregation allows a firm to lower lot size without increasing cost Complete aggregation is effective if product specific fixed cost is a small fraction of joint fixed cost (all customers, all products, all trips). Tailored aggregation is effective if product specific fixed cost is a large fraction of joint fixed cost. Here, larger customers get more frequent deliveries. Tailored aggregation differentiates between high volume and low volume items, orders low volume items less frequently, and is suitable when product specific order cost is high. For instance, the total cost in the last example was $130,767. Tailored aggregation results in a cost reduction of $5,761 (about 4%) compared to the joint ordering of all models. The cost reduction results because each model specific fixed cost of $1,000 is not incurred with every order. On the transportation end, the product-specific order costs can be reduced by locating supply points or delivery points close to one another.
Quantity Discounts
Commodity products - Lot size based: a discount is lot-sized based if the pricing schedule offers discounts based on the quantity ordered in a single lot. All units Marginal unit, also known as multi-block tariffs. In this case, the pricing schedule contains specified break points q0, q1, q2, qr. If an order size of q is placed, the first q1-q0 units are priced at C0, the next q2-q1 are priced at C1, and so on, C0>C1>C2
Products with demand curve - Volume based: a discount is volume-based if the discount is based on the total quantity purchased over a given period, regardless of the number of lots purchased over that period. How should buyer react? What are appropriate discounting schemes?
Pricing schedule has specified quantity break points q0, q1, , qr, where q0 = 0 If an order is placed that is at least as large as qi but smaller than qi+1, then each unit has an average unit cost of Ci The unit cost generally decreases as the quantity increases, i.e., C0>C1>>Cr The objective for the company (a retailer in our example) is to decide on a lot size that will minimize the sum of material, order, and holding costs
$3
$2.96
$2.92
If all units are sold for $3 (no discount), Q0* = 6,324 units. Since 6,324>5000, we should set q1 = 5001 for getting it at $2.96 per unit, and TC0 = $359,080. However, the optimal quantity to order is 10,001 with discounts. Thus, the quantity discount is an incentive to order more. Suppose fixed order cost were reduced to $4 (from $100) Without discount, Q0* would be reduced to 1265 units, that is, if fixed cost of ordering is reduced, lot size reduces sharply. With discount, optimal lot size would still be 10001 units Thus, the average inventory (flow time) increases. What is the effect of such a discount schedule? Retailers are encouraged to increase the size of their orders Average inventory (cycle inventory) in the supply chain is increased Average flow time is increased Is an all-unit quantity discount an advantage in the supply chain?
The marginal unit quantity discount results in a larger lot size than an allunit quantity discount. As the lot size is increased beyond the last break point, the material cost continues to decline. Quantity discounts often contribute more to cycle inventory. So, why quantity discounts?
A retail company DO sells a commodity product (vitamins). Do incurs a fixed order placement, transportation, and receiving cost of $100 every time it places an order with the manufacturer, plus a holding cost of 20%. The manufacturer charges $3 per bottle of vitamins. Every time DO places an order, the manufacturer has to process, pack, and ship the order. The manufacturer incurs a fixed order filling cost of $250, production cost of $2 per bottle, plus a holding cost of 20%.
Quantity Discounts When Firm Has Market Power A new vitamin pill whose properties are highly valued has been introduced into the market by the manufacturer. It can be thus be argued that the price at which DO sells this drug influences demand. Assume that the annual demand faced by DO is given by the demand curve 360,000 60,000p, where p is the price DO sells this drug. The manufacturer incurs a cost CS = $2 per bottle. The manufacturer must decide what to charge DO, and DO, in turn, must decide on the price to charge the customer.
Independent decision-making: it is optimal for DO to sell the drug at $5 per bottle (= p) and for the manufacturer to charge CR = $4 per bottle . Total market demand = 360,000 60,000p = 60,000 ProfitR = p(360,000 60,000p) - (360,000 60,000p) x $4 = ($5 x 60,000) ($4 x $60,000) = $60,000 ProfitM = ($4 x 60,000) ($2 x 60,000) = $120,000 Thus, the total supply chain profit in this case = $60,000 + $120,000 = $180,000
Double marginalization
If the two stages coordinate pricing, p = $4, and let CR = $3.25 per bottle, market demand is 120,000, the total supply chain profit = 120,000 x ($4 - $2) = $240,000 = ProfitR + ProfitM = (120,000 x (4 3.25)) + (120,000 x (3.25-2)) We can thus realize that if each stage sets its price independently, the supply chain thus loses $240,000 - $180,000 = $60,000 in profit. This phenomenon is referred to as double marginalization. Double marginalization leads to a loss of profit because the supply chain margin is divided between two stages but each stage makes its decision considering only its local margin. There are two pricing schemes that the manufacturer may use to achieve the coordinated solution and maximize supply chain profits even though the retailer firm DO acts in a way that maximizes its own profit: two-part tariff and volume-based quantity discounts.
Two-Part Tariffs
Design a two-part tariff that achieves the coordinated solution: the manufacturer charges its entire profit as an up-front franchise fee and then sells to the retailer at its cost price. In the case here, the manufacturer charges DO a franchise fee of $180,000 (its profit) and material cost of CS = CR = $2 per bottle. DO maximizes its profit if p = $4 per bottle. It has annual sales of 360,000 60,000p = 120,000 and profits of $60,000 = ([120,000 x $4] [(120,000 x 2) + 180,000)]).
Volume Discounts
Design a volume discount scheme that achieves the coordinated solution. We recall that 120,000 bottles are sold per year when the supply chain is coordinated. The manufacturer must offer DO a volume discount to encourage DO to purchase this quantity. The manufacturer thus offers a price CR = $4 per bottle if the quantity purchased by DO is less than 120,000 and CR = $3.50 per bottle if the volume is 120,000 or higher. It is then optimal for DO to order 120,000 units and offer them at $4 per bottle to the customers. The total profit earned by DO is (360,000-60,000p) x (p CR) = $60,000. The total profit earned by the manufacturer is 120,000 x (CR - $2) = $180,000, the total supply chain profit remaining unchanged.
Lot size-based discounts increase lot size and cycle inventory in the supply chain. Lot size-based discounts are justified to achieve coordination for commodity products. Lot-sized discounts are based on quantity purchased per lot, not the rate of purchase. Volume-based discounts are based on the rate of purchase or volume purchased on average per year or month. Volume-based discounts are compatible with small lots that reduce cycle inventory. Lot size-based discounts make sense only when the manufacturer incurs a very high fixed cost per order. Volume based discounts with some fixed cost passed on to retailer are more effective in general Volume based discounts are better over rolling horizon, for instance, each week the manufacturer may offer DO the volume discount based on sales over the last 12 weeks.
Trade promotions are price discounts for a limited period of time (also may require specific actions from retailers, such as displays, advertising, etc.) Key goals for promotions from a manufacturers perspective:
Induce retailers to use price discounts, displays, advertising to increase sales Shift inventory from the manufacturer to the retailer and customer Defend a brand against competition Goals are not always achieved by a trade promotion
What is the impact on the behavior of the retailer and on the performance of the supply chain? Retailer has two primary options in response to a promotion:
Pass through some or all of the promotion to customers to spur sales Purchase in greater quantity during promotion period to take advantage of temporary price reduction, but pass through very little of savings to customers