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CHAPTER 4 Cable testing
Differentiate between sine waves and square waves. Define and calculate exponents and logarithms. Define and calculate decibels. Define basic terminology related to time, frequency, and noise. Differentiate between digital bandwidth and analog bandwidth. Compare and contrast noise levels on various types of cabling Define and describe the affects of attenuation and impedance mismatch. Define crosstalk, near-end crosstalk, far-end crosstalk, and power sum near-end crosstalk. Describe how crosstalk and twisted pairs help reduce noise. Describe the ten copper cable tests defined in TIA/EIA-568-B. 2 Describe the difference between Category 5 and Category 6 cable.
T= Period (time to complete 1 wave cycle F= Frequency (cycles per second) = 1/T
Decibels
Decibels are measurements of a gain or loss in the power of a signal.
dB in form of Power (P) dB = 10 log10 (Pfinal / Pref) delivered power original power
Oscilloscope
Oscilloscope is an important electronic device
used to view electrical signals such as voltage waves and pulses. The x-axis on the display represents time, and the y-axis represents voltage or current. Analyzing signals using an oscilloscope is called time-domain analysis, because the xaxis or domain of the mathematical function represents time.
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Spectrum analyzer
An electronic device called a spectrum
analyzer creates graphs for frequencydomain analysis. In frequency-domain analysis, the x-axis represents frequency.
Noise
Noise usually refers to undesirable sounds.
undesirable signals. Noise can originate from natural and technological sources, and is added to the data signals in communications systems.
noise from other signals being transmitted nearby. Electromagnetic interference (EMI), which is noise from nearby sources such as motors and lights. Laser noise at the transmitter or receiver of an optical signal.
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Types of noise
White noise
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Bandwidth
Analog bandwidth Refers to the frequency range of an analog electronic system. The units of measurement is Hertz Digital bandwidth Digital bandwidth measures how much information can flow from one place to another in a given amount of time. The unit of measurement is bits per second (bps).
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STP cable is more expensive, more difficult to install, and less frequently used than UTP.
UTP contains no shielding and is more susceptible to external noise but is the most frequently used because it is inexpensive and easier to install.
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Fiber optic cable is used to transmit data signals by increasing and decreasing the intensity of light to represent binary ones and zeros.
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Shielding material protects the data signal from external sources of noise and from noise generated by electrical signals within the cable. Shielded cable
Ushielded cable
noise, and optical fiber does not need to be grounded. Therefore, optical fiber is often used between buildings and between floors within the building. As costs decrease and demand for speed increases, optical fiber may become a more commonly used LAN media.
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Cables Comparison
Kind of Cable STP UTP Speed and throughput Media & connector size 10-100Mps Medium Large 10-100Mps Medium Large Max Cable Lenght 100m 100m 500m Up to 3000m Cost
Attenuation
Attenuation is the decrease in signal amplitude
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some of the electrical energy of the signal to heat. Signal energy is also lost when it leaks through the insulation of the cable and by impedance caused by defective connectors.
Long cable lengths and high signal frequencies contribute to greater signal attenuation
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cable tester using the highest frequencies that the cable is rated to support. Attenuation is expressed in decibels (dB) using negative numbers. Smaller negative dB values are an indication of better link performance.
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resistance of the cable to alternating current (AC) and is measured in ohms. The normal, or characteristic, impedance of a Cat5 cable is 100 ohms. If a connector is improperly installed on Cat5, it will have a different impedance value than the cable. This is called an impedance discontinuity or an impedance mismatch. Impedance discontinuities cause attenuation
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amplitude between the test signal and the crosstalk signal when measured from the same end of the link.
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helps to reduce crosstalk of data or noise signals from an adjacent wire pair In twisted-pair cable, a pair of wires is used to transmit one signal. The wire pair is twisted so that each wire experiences similar crosstalk. Because a noise signal on one wire will appear identically on the other wire, this noise be easily detected and filtered at the receiver
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Untwisting of wire pairs must be kept to an absolute minimum to reduce crosstalk of data or noise signals from an adjacent wire pair and to ensure reliable LAN communications.
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RJ-45 PINOUTS
The Ethernet standard specifies that each of the pins on an RJ-45 connector have a particular purpose. A NIC transmits signals on pins 1 and 2, and it receives signals on pins 3 and 6. The wires in UTP cable must be connected to the proper pins at each end of a cable.
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The ten primary test parameters that must be verified for a cable link to meet TIA/EIA standards are:
Wire map Insertion loss Near-end crosstalk (NEXT) Power sum near-end crosstalk (PSNEXT) Equal-level far-end crosstalk (ELFEXT) Power sum equal-level far-end crosstalk (PSELFEXT) Return loss Propagation delay Cable length Delay skew
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Good wiremap
Open circuit. The wire does not attach properly at the connector30
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Insertion loss
The combination of the effects of signal
attenuation and impedance discontinuities on a communications link is called insertion loss. Insertion loss is measured in decibels at the far end of the cable.
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Crosstalk
Crosstalk is meassure in four separate tests
test signal to one cable pair. The equal-level far-end crosstalk (ELFEXT) test measures FEXT Power sum equal-level far-end crosstalk (PSELFEXT) is a compine effect of ELFEXT from all wire pairs
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Return loss
Return loss is a measure in decibels of
reflections that are caused by the impedance discontinuities at all locations along the link.
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Propagation delay
Propagation delay is a simple measurement
of how long it takes for a signal to travel along the cable being tested. The delay in a wire pair depends on its length, twist rate, and electrical properties. Delays are measured in hundredths of nanoseconds. One nanosecond is one-billionth of a second, or 0.000000001 second. The TIA/EIA-568-B standard sets a limit for propagation delay for the various categories of UTP.
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TDR Test
The TDR test is used not only to determine
length, but also to identify the distance to wiring faults such as shorts and opens. When the pulse encounters an open, short, or poor connection, all or part of the pulse energy is reflected back to the tester.
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Delay skew
The propagation delay difference between
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Discontinuity
A pulse is a deliberate, fixed disturbances of predictable duration used to Measure propagation delay (delay skew) to determine the value of the data being transmitted Find discontinuities (reflections, jitter) Measure transmission length
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