TOPIK 5 MEMORY ORGANISATION

5.1 COMPUTER MEMORY

Memory - Memory location that stores data and instructions. Each location has a unique address. Memory size of one of the factors determining the ability of a computer. Size capabilities Memory size determines the speed and number of programs that can be opened simultaneously. Memory is measured in units of megabytes (MB)

Memory Hierarchy

Memory Hierarchy

Computer memory can be viewed as a hierarchy. At the top of the hierarchy is the fastest memory. This memory is usually the smallest and most expensive. Registers and cache memory fall into this category. The next level in the hierarchy is primary memory(RAM). This memory is larger than cache memory and is cheaper and slower. At the bottom of the hierarchy is disk storage, which is often called secondary memory.Disk storage is the cheapest and slowest memory. The more immediate the need for the data, the higher in the hierarchy it is stored. For example, data needed for an instruction that is being executed in the CPU is stored in the registers, while data needed for the next few instructions is stored in the cache. Instructions and data which are not immediately required are stored in primary memory or on the disk.

Jenis Ingatan utama

RAM (random access memory)

jenis:

ROM ( Read only memory)

jenis:

SRAM DRAM

MASK ROM PROM EPROM EEPROM EAROM FLASH EEPROM

RAM
Melaksanakan proses baca dan tulis. Known as volatile memory Hilang kandungannya sebaik saja komputer ditutup (off). Berfungsi utk menyimpan data yg sedang diproses buat sementara waktu agar ianya pantas di ant CPU dan sis pengoperasian.

SRAM

DRAM

Guna flip-flop sbg sel ingatan. Simpan data dlm btk voltan. Setiap sel ingatan perlu 6 transistor ( kepadatan rendah ttp kelajuan tinggi) Guna kuasa yg tinggi Data disimpan selagi bekalan kuasa dibekalkan tidak perlu proses pemulihan

Guna kapasitor sbg sel ingatan. Simpan data dlm btk cas Unit sel lbh ringkas dan blh dipadatkan dlm 1 cip (kepadatan tinggi & murah) Guna kuasa rendah Data disimpan akan hilang apb kapsitor discas. Proses pemulihan diperlukan setip 2ms. Perlu litar pemulihan menyebabkan perkakasan rumit

Kelemahan & Kebaikan

SRAM lebih mudah difahami dan mudah digunakan DRAM lebih kompleks kerana perlu litar sokongan yg kompleks Masa capaian bagi DRAM lebih lambat.

ROM
Sejenis ingatan yg sedia ada (kekal) dlm komputer walaupun punca kuasa dimatikan. Tidak boleh diubah dan ditulis tetapi boleh dibaca Known as non-volatile memory Data dlm ROM dimskkan ketika proses di kilang. Kebykan diguna utk simpan aturcara pemula/ pemuat bootstrap bg menghidupkan sis operasi

Jenis-jenis ROM

PROM (Programmable ROM)

Blh

diaturcara Ingatan disimpan dgn memutuskan fius-fius. Nilai bit diwakil olh 1 fius. Blh diprogram 1 kali sj. Tdk blh guna lagi jika tersilap aturcara. Ditulis dgn PROM programmer

Jenis-jenis ROM

MROM (Mask ROM)

It

has its storage location written into (programmed) by the manufacturer according to the customers specifications. Since these mask are expensive, MROM is used when the needed volume is high and the program code is finalized. If an error in the data/code is found, the entire batch must be thrown away.

Jenis-jenis ROM

EPROM (Erasable Programmable ROM)

Blh

diaturcara semula guna EPROM programmer Kandungan data blh dipadam di bwh sinar UV Blh dipadam dan diaturcara sml berulang kali (2000 kali) Harga lebih mahal dpd PROM Kesemua data dipadam apb dipadam

TYPES OF ROM

Blh

EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM)

diaturcara dan dipadam guna denyut elektrik (500K kali) Blh diaturcara semula tanpa tanggal cip dpd sis computer. Lbh mahal dpd EPROM & PROM ability to electrically erase and rewrite individual bytes (8-bit words) in the memory array. During a write operation internal circuitry automatically erase all the cell at an address location prior to writing in the new data

CONTINUE.

EAROM (Electrically Alterable ROM)

Blh

diaturcara dan dipadam guna denyut elektrik Blh diaturcara semula tanpa tanggal cip dpd sis computer. does not require the whole chip to be erased, rather it allows data alteration at user selected location

CONTINUE.

FLASH EEPROM (FLASH MEMORY EPROM)

Process

of erasure of the entire contest take less than a second. Erasure method is electrical and it will erase the contest of the entire device or memory block. Widely used as a BIOS ROM of a PC.

DRAM ORGANISATION

FLASH EEPROM (FLASH MEMORY EPROM)

Process

of erasure of the entire contest take less than a second. Erasure method is electrical and it will erase the contest of the entire device or memory block. Widely used as a BIOS ROM of a PC.

Semiconductor memory technologies

There is a large variety of types of ROM and RAM that are available. These arise from the variety of applications and also the number of technologies available. This means that there is a large number of abbreviations or acronyms and categories for memories ranging from Flash to MRAM, PROM to EEPROM, and many more:

RAM - Random Access Memory

the RAM or random access memory is a form of semiconductor memory technology that is used for reading and writing data in any order as required. It is used for such applications as the computer or processor memory where variables and other stored and are required on a random basis. Data is stored and read many times to and from this type of memory.

ROM - Read Only Memory

A ROM is a form of semiconductor memory technology used where the data is written once and then not changed. In view of this it is used where data needs to be stored permanently, even when the power is removed - many memory technologies lose the data once the power is removed.

PROM
This stands for Programmable Read Only Memory. It is a semiconductor memory which can only have data written to it once - the data written to it is permanent. These memories are bought in a blank format and they are programmed using a special PROM programmer. Typically a PROM will consist of an array of fuseable links some of which are "blown" during the programming process to provide the required data pattern.

EPROM
This is an Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory. This form of semiconductor memory can be programmed and then erased at a later time. This is normally achieved by exposing the silicon to ultraviolet light. To enable this to happen there is a circular window in the package of the EPROM to enable the light to reach the silicon of the chip. When the PROM is in use, this window is normally covered by a label, especially when the data may need to be preserved for an extended period.
The PROM stores its data as a charge on a capacitor. There is a charge storage capacitor for each cell and this can be read repeatedly as required. However it is found that after many years the charge may leak away and the data may be lost. Nevertheless, this type of semiconductor memory used to be widely used in applications where a form of ROM was required, but where the data needed to be changed periodically, as in a development environment, or where quantities were low.

EEPROM
This is an Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory. Data can be written to it and it can be erased using an electrical voltage. This is typically applied to an erase pin on the chip. Like other types of PROM, EEPROM retains the contents of the memory even when the power is turned off. Also like other types of ROM, EEPROM is not as fast as RAM.

Flash memory
Flash memory may be considered as a development of EEPROM technology. Data can be written to it and it can be erased, although only in blocks, but data can be read on an individual cell basis. To erase and reprogramme areas of the chip, programming voltages at levels that are available within electronic equipment are used. It is also non-volatile, and this makes it particularly useful. As a result Flash memory is widely used in many applications including memory cards for digital cameras, mobile phones, computer memory sticks and many other applications.

External memory
External memory which is sometimes called backing store or secondary memory, allows the permanent storage of large quantities of data. Magnetic disk is a memory device such as a floppy disk, a hard disk, or a removable cartridge, that is covered with a magnetic coating on which digital information is stored in the form of microscopically small, magnetized needles. RAID Redundant Array of Inexpensive/Independent Drives (or Disk) Gabungan dua atau lebih hard disk yang mana ia digunakan untuk proses pembetulan data dan juga meningkatkan prestasi capaian data. Kebiasaannya digunakan pada server. Membolehkan data yang sama disimpan di banyak tempat. Optical memory : it is a memory device that uses laser beams to store data . for e.g. CDROM. Optical memory are advanced and faster than magnetic memory device.

Magnetic tape :A recording medium consisting of a thin tape with a coating of a fine magnetic material, used for recording analogue or digital data. Data is stored in frames across the width of the tape.

External memory

Magnetic disk

Magnetic tape

RAID

Optical memory

Cache memory
Cache Memory is the level of computer memory hierarchy situated between the processor and main memory. It is a very fast memory the processor can access much more quickly than main memory or RAM. Cache is relatively small and expensive. Its function is to keep a copy of the data and code (instructions) currently used by the CPU. By using cache memory, waiting states are significantly reduced and the work of the processor becomes more effective.

Three types of mapping procedures are there (1) Associative Mapping-The fastest and most flexible cache organizations uses associative mapping. The associative memory stores both the address and content of memory word. This permits any location in catche to store word in main memory.

Three types of mapping procedures are there

(2) Direct Mapping-Associative memories are expesive compared to RAM's because of added logic associated with each cell.

Three types of mapping procedures are there

(3) Set Associative Mapping-It is a more general method that includes pure associative and direct mapping as special case. It is an improvement over the direct mapping organization in that each word of cache can store two or more words of memory under the same index address. Each data word is stored together with its tag and the number of tag data items in one word of cache is said to form a set.

What is virtual Memory

Virtual memory combines your computers RAM with temporary space on your hard disk. When RAM runs low, virtual memory moves data from RAM to a space called a paging file. Moving data to and from the paging file frees up RAM to complete its work.

DRAM
Dynamic RAM is a form of random access memory. DRAM uses a capacitor to store each bit of data, and the level of charge on each capacitor determines whether that bit is a logical 1 or 0. However these capacitors do not hold their charge indefinitely, and therefore the data needs to be refreshed periodically. As a result of this dynamic refreshing it gains its name of being a dynamic RAM. DRAM is the form of semiconductor memory that is often used in equipment including personal computers and workstations where it forms the main RAM for the computer.

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