THEORY OF

)EQUATIONS )2
 CONTENTS

 Complete Division
Remainders and Derivatives
Relation between Roots and
Coefficients
Applications
Complete Division

Consider f(x)

to be a polynomial of order 3
and is divided several times by
the factor
(x − r)
f(x) = (x − r) p1 (x) + R 0
= (x - r)((x - r)p2 (x) + R 1 ) + R 0

p2 ( x) = (x - r)R 3 + R2

3 2
f(x) = R 3 (x − r) + R 2 (x − r) +

R 1 (x − r) + R 0
Example

ًًWrite the polynomial

f(x) = x 4 + 6x 3 − 7x 2 − 36 x + 37

ًًin terms of powers of

(x − 2)
2 1 6 −7 − 36 37
2 16 18 − 36
1 8 9 − 18 1 = R0
2 1 6 −7 − 36 37
2 16 18 − 36
1 8 9 − 18 1 = R0
2 20 58
1 10 29 40 = R 1
2 24
1 12 53 = R 2
2
1 14 = R 3
1 = R4
 4 3
f(x) = (x − 2) + 14(x − 2)
2
+ 53(x − 2) + 40(x - 2) + 1

Remark
ًًThe equation
4 3 2
y + 14 y + 53y + 40 y + 1 = 0
ًًhas roots that are less by “2” than
those of the original equation f(x) = 0
x 4 + 6x 3 − 7x 2 − 36 x + 37 = 0
Relation between remainders
and derivatives

ًًThe division leads to

2
f(x) = R 0 + R 1(x − r) + R 2 (x − 2)
3
+ R 3 (x − 2) + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
 From Taylor’s Expansion

f ′′(r)
′
f(x) = f(r) + f (r)(x − r) + (x − r)2

2!
f (3) 3
+ (x − r) + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
3!
(n)
f (r)
Rn =
n!
Example
4 3 2
f(x) = x + 6x − 7x − 36 x + 37

Find the derivatives at

x =2

4 3
f(x) = (x − 2) + 14(x − 2)
2
+ 53(x − 2) + 40(x - 2) + 1
f(2) = 1

f ′(2) = 1! R 1 = 40

f ′′(2) = 2! R 2 = 106

(3)
f (2) = 3! R 3 = 84

f (4)(2) = 4! R 4 = 24
Relation between the roots of an
equation and the coefficients
Assume that the roots of the equation
n n−1 n−2
f(x) = an x + an−1 x + an−2 x
+ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + a1 x + a0 = 0
are

r1 , r2 , ⋅ ⋅⋅, rn
 n an−1 n−1 an−2 n−2
f(x) = an (x + x + x +⋅⋅⋅
an an
a1 a0
+ x+ ) =0
an an

f(x) = an (x − r1 )(x − r2 ) ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ (x − rn )

Comparing the coefficients of the different

powers of x
x n
an = an
an− 1
x n −1 = − (r1 + r2 + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + rn )
an
 an− 2
= r1r2 + r1r3 + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + r1rn
an

n −1
+ r2r3 + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + r2rn
x

+ rn−1rn

0 a0
x n
= (− 1) (r1 r2 r3 ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ rn )
an
The quadratic equation

2
ax + bx + c = 0
2
− b ± b − 4ac
r1 , r2 =
2a
b
r1 + r2 = −
a
c
r1r2 =
a
Example
If the roots of the equation

3 2
x − 7x + cx − 8 = 0
constitute a geometric series, find them
and find the value of c
Solution
Assume the roots are
a
, a, am
m
  a
− 8 = (− 1)   ( a)( am)
3

 m
= -a3

a =2
a 
− 7 = (− 1) + a + am 
m 
2 
7= + 2 + 2m 
m 
 2
2m − 5m + 2 = 0 a
, a, am
m
(m − 2)(2m − 1) = 0

1
m= 2 m=
2
1,2 ,4 4 ,2 ,1
The value of c
Substitute with one of the roots
r=1
3 2
(1) − 7(1) + c(1) − 8 = 0
c = 14
Or using the relation
c = (−1) ( r1r2 + r1r3 + r2r3 )
2
 Finding an equation with roots that are
inverses of those of a given equation
1 1
y= ⇒ x=
x y
n n −1 n−2
1  1  1 
an 
y 
 + an−1 
y 
 + an−2 
y 
     
1 
+ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + a1 
y 
 + a0 = 0
 
n n−1 n−2
a0 y + a1 y + a2 y
+ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + an-1 y + an = 0
 Finding an equation with roots that are
multiples of those of a given equation
y
y = mx ⇒ x =
m

n n−1 n−2
y  y  y 
an   + an−1   + an−2  
m  m  m 
y 
+ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + a1   + a0 = 0
m 
Special case: equation with
roots opposite in sign y = −x
Example

4 3 2
x + 6x − 7x − 36 x + 37 = 0

4 3 2
y − 6y − 7y + 36 y + 37 = 0
Finding an equation with roots that are
squares of those of a given equation
f(x) = (x − r1 )(x − r2 ) ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ (x − rn ) = 0

×
f(x) = (x + r1 )(x + r2 ) ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ (x + rn ) = 0

2 2 2 2 2 2
(x − r )(x − r ) ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ (x − r ) = 0
1 2 n
 2
x ⇒ y

2 2 2
(y − r )(y − r ) ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ (y − r ) = 0
1 2 n

Equation with roots

2 2 2
r , r ,⋅ ⋅ ⋅, r
1 2 n
Example
Find the equation with roots that are the
square of the roots of the equation

x 3 − 4x2 + 2x − 9 = 0
Solution
1)Equation with the opposite sign roots
2)Multiplication of the two equations
3) Set x2 ⇒ y
 3 2
x − 4x + 2x − 9 = 0

3 2
×
− x − 4x − 2x − 9 = 0

− x 6 + 12 x 4 + 68 x 2 + 81 = 0
2
x ⇒ y
− y 3 + 12 y 2 + 68 y + 81 = 0

y 3 − 12 y 2 − 68 y − 81 = 0