October 17, 2008 IC Engines Laboratory, IIT Madras 1 of 71

Basically there are three components

• Compressing device
• Heat adding device
• Expanding device
i.e. compressor, combustor and turbine

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 • The three devices mentioned can be
arranged either in an open or a closed
form.
• Accordingly, a gas turbine cycle can be
classified into two categories:
(i) open cycle arrangement
(iv) closed cycle arrangement
Of the two, open cycle arrangements are
much more common
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 • In the open cycle arrangements the working
medium expands into atmosphere.
• In the closed cycle arrangements the
working medium is re-circulated every
time.
• In the open cycle the heat addition takes
place in the working medium itself.
• In the closed cycle the heat addition is by
means of a heat exchanger.

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 Fig.4.1 A simple gas turbine with single shaft arrangement

• Where will this arrangements be ideal?

• For fixed speed and load conditions.
• Eg. Peak power generation

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 Disadvantages of this arrangement:
• No flexibility of operation
• Accommodation of sudden speed and load
variation is not possible
• Efficiency at part load is poor.

To improve the efficiency what should be

done?
October 17, 2008 IC Engines Laboratory, IIT Madras 6 of 71
 Use the exhaust gas energy from the turbine.
i.e. add a heat exchanger.
This will improve efficiency but may decrease
the output.

Fig.4.2 A simple gas turbine with heat Fig.4.3 A simple gas turbine with heat
exchanger exchanger – an alternative
arrangement

October 17, 2008 IC Engines Laboratory, IIT Madras 7 of 71

 Fig.4.3 A simple gas turbine with heat
Fig.4.2 A simple gas turbine with heat
exchanger – an alternative
exchanger arrangement

The arrangement in the Fig.4.3 is less efficient than

in Fig.4.2. Because adding heat by means of heat
exchanger is less than perfect due to effectiveness of
the heat exchanger.
This arrangement will be useful only if inferior fuels
are used.
October 17, 2008 IC Engines Laboratory, IIT Madras 8 of 71
 What should be done for the flexibility of operation?

Fig.4.4 A simple twin shaft arrangement

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 • Where do you require the flexibility of
operation?
• road, rail and marine applications
• fuel flow controls power output of the
load turbine
• In this arrangement, the pressure ratio ↓
and peak temperature also ↓
• at off-design conditions the power output
and thermal efficiency ↓ ↓
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 • How can you overcome the
disadvantage of this arrangement?

October 17, 2008 IC Engines Laboratory, IIT Madras 11 of 71

 Fig.4.5 Series flow twin shaft
arrangement

Fig.4.6 Parallel flow twin

shaft arrangement

Overcomes the disadvantages of the previous arrangements.

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 How to improve the performance
further?

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 Fig.4.7 Series flow with intercooling
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 Fig.4.8 Series flow with reheating
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 Is there any possibility of further
improvement in the performance?

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 Fig.4.9 Straight compounded twin-spool arrangement

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 • Heat exchanger → η↑
• Higher r without HE → η↑
• For higher r what type of compressor is preferred
Axial compressors
• What is the problem with an axial compressor ?
off-design conditions causes instability
• Instability means
vibration after certain pressure ratio [8:1]
• How to overcome the instability?

October 17, 2008 IC Engines Laboratory, IIT Madras 18 of 71

 • To overcome instability, mechanical separation of
compressor is the best.
• This is called ‘compounding’.
• Figure below shows straight compounding
• This is used in aircrafts

October 17, 2008 IC Engines Laboratory, IIT Madras 19 of 71

 • Another possibility is cross
compounding
• May give better efficiency at part
load.
• However, stability is opposite to
straight compounding.

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October 17, 2008 IC Engines Laboratory, IIT Madras 21 of 71
• Why closed cycle arrangements?
• Open cycle operates on atmospheric
pressure and temperature
• Exhaust temperature is around 700 K
• Average maximum temperature = 1000 K.
• 1 kg of gas will occupy 2.34 m3.

October 17, 2008 IC Engines Laboratory, IIT Madras 22 of 71

 • At lower pressure-ratios the constant-
pressure cycle requires large mass flow
rate.
• Volume flow rate will also be very
large.
• Large blades and large rotors are
required.
• Therefore, there is a limit for power
output.

October 17, 2008 IC Engines Laboratory, IIT Madras 23 of 71

 η is not a function of p
But it is a function of r, T3
• As pressure increases volume decreases
• In closed cycle same fluid will circulate again and
again.
• If we use air as working medium more and more
oxygen is required for every cycle.
• But note that Air-fuel ratio is of the order of 60:1 to
100:1 in a GTPP.
C pT1   1 

WC   r  1
C  

• Gas cooler is required to reduce T1.

October 17, 2008 IC Engines Laboratory, IIT Madras 24 of 71

 Fig.4.10 A closed cycle arrangement with air as
working medium
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 Fig.4.11 Another closed cycle arrangement with
working medium other than air
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 Advantages
1. Use of high pressure (and hence gas
density) level throughout the cycle
would result in a reduced size of the
plant for a given output.

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 2. Wide range of load variation is
possible by varying the pressure
levels without altering the maximum
cycle temperature. Hence, there will
be almost no variation of overall
efficiency.

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 • Erosion of the turbine blades due to the
products of combustion is eliminated.
• Filtration of working medium is not
required except charging for the first time.
• High density of the working medium
improves the effectiveness of the heat
exchanger.

October 17, 2008 IC Engines Laboratory, IIT Madras 29 of 71

• Gases other than air, such as helium etc.
having better thermal properties, say γ = 1.66
can be used to increase the power output and
thermal efficiency.
• Cheaper fuels can be used.

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 Disadvantages
• The heating system is quite bulky.
• It is quite difficult to make the system
absolutely leak proof.
• Large capacity cooler is necessary.
• Useful only for stationary power plants.

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 BASIC REQUIREMENTS
OF THE WORKING
MEDIUM

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 • In a closed cycle arrangement, if the
operating medium is other than air then
it must satisfy the following
requirements.
• Availability of the working medium.
• Stability of the working medium.

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 • It should be non-toxic and non-
inflammable.
• It should have high specific heat
value Cp and high specific heat
ratio, γ .
• It must have a higher thermal
conductivity, k.

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October 17, 2008 IC Engines Laboratory, IIT Madras 35 of 71
 • Properties of some representative gases
shown in the table indicates that when
desirable values of Cp and γ are available,
they are accompanied by high values of R.
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 The work done during compression per kg of
flow of any gas is given by
Wc = C p ( T2 − T1 )
and the temperatures after compression, T2, is
given by γ −1
γ
T2 = T1r
• On the other hand a high value of γ and Cp are
essential for higher turbine output, assuming the
same R.
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 • It may be noted that the net output of the
cycle will always increase with high values
of Cp and γ.
• Then the increased output per kg of working
medium would permit a reduction in mass
flow rate.
• However, high values of thermal
conductivity would result in appreciable
saving in heat exchangers, i.e. regenerators
and pre-coolers.
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 • The values given in the Table 4.1 for k are
based on 00C for comparative purpose.
• Actually, these values would be
considerably higher at the temperatures
encountered in regenerators.
• Therefore, it may be concluded that any
serious reduction in size of the gas turbine
plant by using a gas other than air would
have to be realized in heat exchangers.

October 17, 2008 IC Engines Laboratory, IIT Madras 39 of 71

 • Of course, a gas other than air could
be used in an externally-fired closed
cycle.
• But it should be the aim to have a
reduction in the size of heat exchanger
and is particularly important.

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October 17, 2008 IC Engines Laboratory, IIT Madras 42 of 71
 • Gas turbines can be classified into aircraft
and industrial gas turbines, the second
term meaning all those gas turbine power
plants which are not included in the first
category.
• The aircraft gas turbines differ from the
industrial gas turbines in three main
aspects.

October 17, 2008 IC Engines Laboratory, IIT Madras 43 of 71

 • The life of the industrial gas turbine is expected
to be of the order of 120,000 hours without major
overhaul as against 600-1200 hours for aircraft
gas turbines.
• Size and the weight of an aircraft power plant is
very crucial compared to industrial units.
• The aircraft power plant can make use of kinetic
energy of the gases leaving the exhaust whereas
it is wasted in other types and consequently, this
energy loss must be kept as minimum as
possible.

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 • Considerable design difference

• Industrial → rugged, multifuel

capability, quite a few auxiliaries

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 • Pump sets for oil and gas transmission
• shipping → only cargo, not merchandise
• Reason : poor part load performance and
higher specific fuel consumption.
• To overcome – Combined power plant
• GT → ST and DP

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 • Little impact on rail (locomotive)
transport.
• Experimental trains are running in
some countries.
• Automobiles : only in the research
stage.

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 • Total energy plant
• Use of exhaust gas energy
Cooling in summer
Heating in winter
• Can be used as a compact air
compressor capable of supplying
large quantities of air at moderate
pressure.

October 17, 2008 IC Engines Laboratory, IIT Madras 48 of 71

 • These differences in the requirements have
considerable effect on design, although
fundamental theory is same for both the
categories.
• Industrial gas turbines are rugged in construction,
with many auxiliary equipments.
• They often employ a single, large cylindrical
combustion chamber.
• They are also designed for multi-fuel capability.

October 17, 2008 IC Engines Laboratory, IIT Madras 49 of 71

 • Apart from the aircraft market, the widest
application of gas turbines have been in pump
sets for oil and gas transmission pipe lines and
generation of electricity .
• So far gas turbines have made no inroads into the
world of merchant shipping but it is extensively
used in naval operations.
• A major disadvantage of the gas turbine in naval
use is its poor part load performance and higher
specific fuel consumption.

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 • To overcome this problem, combined
power plants consisting of gas turbines in
conjunction with steam turbines, diesel
engines and other gas turbines have been
considered.
• To date, little impact has been made in
the field of rail transport.
• Experimental trains have been operating
in some countries.

October 17, 2008 IC Engines Laboratory, IIT Madras 51 of 71

 • The high speed passenger train with gas
turbine power is an attractive concept for
the future.
• May be in near future a long haul truck
market will provide a major application
for the gas turbine.
• Major automobile industries are active in
developing engines in the range of 200-
300 kW.

October 17, 2008 IC Engines Laboratory, IIT Madras 52 of 71

 • These vehicular engines employ low
pressure ratio, centrifugal
compressor, free power turbine and
a rotary heat exchanger.
• Concern with exhaust pollution will
be a critical factor in favour of gas
turbine.
• The major problem is still with high
part-load fuel consumption.

October 17, 2008 IC Engines Laboratory, IIT Madras 53 of 71

 • Another concept of potentially great
importance is the so-called Total Energy Plant,
where exhaust heat is used to provide building
heating in winter and refrigeration/air
conditioning in the summer.
• Other uses for energy in a gas turbine's exhaust
are found in process industries.
• The gas turbine can also be used as a compact
air compressor suitable for supplying large
quantities of air at moderate pressures.

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October 17, 2008 IC Engines Laboratory, IIT Madras 55 of 71
 • Gas turbine is also an internal
combustion engine.
• Its competitor in early stages was the
reciprocating internal combustion
engines.
• Let us compare them.

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 Advantages of Gas Turbines over
Reciprocating Engines
(i) Mechanical efficiency: Mechanical efficiency of
the gas turbine is considerably higher than that of
the best reciprocating engine.
For simple gas turbine design mechanical
efficiency of 90% to 95% has been claimed while
for reciprocating engine it is from 85 to 90%
under full load conditions.
It is due to more frictional losses in reciprocating
engines.
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 (ii) Balancing: Due to absence of any
reciprocating mass in gas turbine engine,
balancing can be near perfect.
Torsional vibrations are absent because gas
turbine is a steady flow machine.
(iii) Cost: In case of larger output gas turbine
units of 2500 kW, it can be built at an
appreciably lower cost and in a shorter time
than the corresponding multicylinder petrol
or diesel engines.

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 • Weight: The fuel consumption per kW hour of
best available aircraft gas turbine is almost
twice that of the normal petrol engine.
However, it has much lighter weight per kW so
that the total weight of turbine plus fuel does
not compare unfavourably with reciprocating
type of engine and its fuel.
To give quantitative example, the specific
weight of
(a) steam turbine is about 53 kg/kW,
(b) diesel engine is about 115 kg/kW and
(c) gas turbine is about 20 kg/kW.
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 (v) External shape and size: The basic cylindrical
shape of turbine and compressor unit renders the
gas turbine more convenient to start, especially
in aircraft and locomotives.
(vi) Fuel: The turbine can be designed to operate
with cheaper and more readily available fuels
such as benzene,powdered coal, and heavy
graded hydrocarbons. Promising results have
been obtained using furnace oil and also
pulverized coal as fuel.

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 (vii) Lubrication: Compared with reciprocating
engines the lubrication of gas turbines is
comparatively simpler.
The requirement is chiefly to lubricate the main
bearing, compressor shaft and bearings of
auxiliaries.
(viii) Maintenance: The fact that the gas turbine
consists of essentially a single turbine and
compressor unit with a common or coupled shaft
running in a relatively smaller number of main
bearings, only minimum maintenance is
necessary as compared to the reciprocating
internal combustion engines.

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 (ix) Low operating pressures: The gas turbine
generally operates at relatively low
pressures so that the parts exposed to
these pressures can be made light
although the effects of thermal expansion
and contraction must be taken into
account.
The maximum combustion pressure is
much lower than that in reciprocating
engines so that the pressure joints and
piping do not pose any difficulty.
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 (x) Silent operation: Since the exhaust from a
gas turbine occurs under practically
constant pressure conditions unlike the
pulsating nature of reciprocating engine
exhaust, the turbine and compressor, if
dynamically balanced, can run very
smoothly.
The usual vibration noises as in the case of
reciprocating engine are almost absent.

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 (xi) Smokeless exhaust: With the present
tendency to use relatively large surplus
air for combustion in order to reduce
temperature of gases, the exhaust from
the turbine is almost smokeless and
generally free from pungent odour
associated with optimum and rich fuel
mixture which is characteristic of
reciprocating engines.

October 17, 2008 IC Engines Laboratory, IIT Madras 64 of 71

 (xii) High operational speed: Turbine can be made lighter
than the reciprocating engine of similar output.
It can be run at much higher speed than reciprocating
engines.
The output of any engine varies directly as the product
of the driving shaft torque and its rpm.
Therefore, for a given output and higher speed the
torque will be lower.
It may be noted that the torque characteristics of the gas
turbine is much better than that of reciprocating engine,
since the former gives a high initial torque and its
variation with speed is comparatively less.
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 (i) Efficiency: The overall efficiency of
the turbine is much less than the
reciprocating engine since 70% of the
output of the turbine is to be fed to
the compressor and other accessories
and auxiliary parts.

October 17, 2008 IC Engines Laboratory, IIT Madras 67 of 71

 (ii) Temperature limitation: The maximum
temperature in gas turbine cannot exceed
1500 K because of the material
consideration of the blade while in
reciprocating engines with complete
combustion of the fuel the maximum
temperature can be raised to 2000 K.
This high temperature is permitted since the
piston and cylinder head are subjected to
this high temperature only for a fraction of a
second.
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 (iii) Cooling: We can achieve very good
results by efficient cooling in
reciprocating engine by which the heat of
the cylinder walls is taken away, which
enables to keep the wall temperature only
around 500 K but in gas turbine, cooling
is complicated, and, therefore, much
higher temperature cannot be allowed to
reach.

October 17, 2008 IC Engines Laboratory, IIT Madras 69 of 71

 (iv) Starting difficulties: It is more
difficult to start a gas turbine
than a reciprocating engine as it
requires compressed air or some
suitable starter mechanism which
are complicated.

October 17, 2008 IC Engines Laboratory, IIT Madras 70 of 71

 Bye until next
topic!!!

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