Nature of a wave

 A wave is described by frequency ν, wavelength λ,

phase velocity u and intensity I

 A wave is spread out and occupies a relatively large

region of space
 Nature of a particle

 A particle is specified by mass m, velocity v,

momentum p, and energy E

 A particle occupies a definite position in space.

In order for that it must be small
 Light

 Interference and Diffraction experiments showed the

wave nature of light

 Blackbody radiation and Photoelectric effect can be

explained only by considering light as a stream of
particles
 So is light a
wave or a particle
?
How are they related?

E = hν

 E– energy of the photon

 ν – frequency of the wave
 h– plank's constant

p=h/λ

 p – momentum of the particle

 λ - wavelength of the photon
 The de Broglie Hypothesis

 If light can act like a wave sometimes and like a particle

at other times, then all matter,
matter usually thought of as
particles, should exhibit wave-like behaviour

 The relation between the momentum and the

wavelength of a photon can be applied to material
particles also

Prince Louis de Broglie

(1892-1987)
 de Broglie Wavelength

h

mv

Relates a particle-like property (p)

to a wave-like property (λ)
 The frequency

 De Broglie postulated that all particles satisfy

Einstein’s relation

E  hf

In other words,

E
ƒ
h
Example: de Broglie wavelength of an electron

Mass = 9.11 x 10-31 kg

Speed = 106 m / sec

6.63 ×10−34 Joules ⋅ sec −10

λ= −31 6
= 7 .28 × 10 m
(9.11 × 10 kg)(10 m/sec)

This wavelength is in the region of X-

rays
 Example: de Broglie wavelength of a ball

 Mass = 1 kg
Speed = 1 m / sec

6.63 ×10−34 Joules ⋅ sec

λ= = 6.63 × 10−34 m
(1 kg)(1 m/sec)
 Theoretical implication – The Bohr
postulate

 Consider standing waves produced in a stretched

string tied at two ends

 Condition for these standing waves is that the length

of the string should be integral multiple of λ/2
 Consider the string to form a circular loop.

 Condition for these standing waves in this

configuration is that the length of the string should
be integral multiple of λ
 2πr = nλ
2πr = n (h/mv)
mvr= n (h/2π)

 The result says that the angular momentum of the

orbiting electron will be an integral multiple of h/2π
 This is nothing but first postulate of bohr
The Davisson-Germer Experiment
The Davisson-Germer Experiment
 Bragg Scattering

Bragg scattering is used to determine the structure of the atoms in a crystal

from the spacing between the spots on a diffraction pattern (above)
 The Diffraction

X-rays electrons

The diffraction patterns are similar because

electrons have similar wavelengths to X-rays
The Two-Slit Experiment

Shockwave Flash
Object
The Two-Slit Experiment
The Two-Slit Experiment
 Wave-like Behaviour of Matter

 Evidence:
– electron diffraction
– electron interference (double-slit experiment)

 Also possible with more massive particles,

such as neutrons and α-particles

 Applications:
– Bragg scattering
– Electron microscopes
– Electron- and proton-beam lithography
 Wave-Particle Duality

particle wave function

 Schrödinger’s Equation

 Solve this equation to obtain ψ

 Tells us how ψ evolves or behaves

in a given potential

 Analogue of Newton’s equation

in classical mechanics

Erwin Schrödinger (1887-1961)

 Schrödinger’s Equation
• This was a plausibility argument, not a derivation. We
believe the Schrödinger equation not because of this argument,
but because its predictions agree with experiment.

• There are limits to its validity. In this form it applies only to

a single, non-relativistic particle (i.e. one with non-zero rest
mass and speed much less than c)

• The Schrödinger equation is a partial differential equation in

x and t (like classical wave equation). Unlike the classical wave
equation it is first order in time.

• The Schrödinger equation contains the complex number i.

Therefore its solutions are essentially complex (unlike classical
waves, where the use of complex numbers is just a
mathematical convenience).
 Interpretation of |ψ| 2

 The quantity |ψ| 2 is interpreted as the probability that

the particle can be found at a particular point x and a
particular time t

 The act of measurement ‘collapses’ the wave function

and turns it into a particle

Neils Bohr (1885-1962)

 Wave Function

 Completely describes all the properties of a

given particle

 Called ψ = ψ (x,t); is a complex function of

position x and time t
 Wave-Particle Duality

particle wave function