Introduction to Research Methodology

Preamble
Knowledge: a synthesis of three elements (Gustavsson, 1992).
The process of knowing i.e. Methodology, The knower i.e. The Researcher, and The known i.e. The Outcome of Research

Epistemology i.e. The philosophy of knowing

Methods of Knowing
Four general ways of knowing (Charles Peirce):
1. Method of Tenacity 2. Method of Authority 3. A Priori method (Method of Intuition) 4. Method of Science Method of Logic

Science vs. Common Sense

Science often refutes common sense. However, both work in similar ways. Common sense can be defined as
practical judgments based on the experiences, wisdoms, and prejudices of a people. Example:
Birds of the same feather flock together; opposite attract.

What is science?
Science is
A process of inquiry, a way of knowing Systematic process of asking and answering questions Driven by active curiosity, creativity, natural skepticism, and tolerance for ambiguity Serendipity is a part of science, but requires prepared mind.

Definition of Science
Science can be defined as
an objective, logical, and systematic method of analysis of phenomena, devised to permit the accumulation of reliable knowledge (Lastrucci 1963:6).

Key Elements of Scientific Method

Driving Curiosity
formulation of meaningful questions that are out-ofreach of common sense problem-solving

Systematic observation
involving repeated, magnified examinations aimed at reducing uncertainty about cause and effect (antecedents and consequences)

Systematic experimentation
testing different antecedents (causes) to see which one, or combination, produces a given consequence (effects).

Characteristics of The Scientific Method

Empirical
Information or facts about the world based on sensory experiences. That is direct observation of the world, to see whether scientific theories or speculations agree with the facts.

Systematic
All aspects of the research process are carefully planned in advance, and nothing is done in a casual or haphazard fashion.

Replication
Repeating studies numerous times to determine if the same results will be obtained.

Search for Causes

Scientists assume that there is order in the universe, that there are ascertainable reasons for the occurrence of all events, and that science can discover the orderly nature of the world.

Characteristics of The Scientific Method

Provisional
Scientific conclusions are always accepted as tentative and subject to question and possible refutation.

Objective
Scientists attempt to remove their bias, belief, preferences, wishes, and values from their scientific research. It means the ability to see and accept facts as they are, not as one might wish them to be.

Inter-subjective Testability
Deductive reasoning (a priori assumption) is where a conclusion is inferred from more abstract premises or propositions (Monette et al, 1994). Inductive reasoning involves the derivation of general principles from direct observation-from particular instances to general principles (Rubin & Babbie, 1997).

Wheel of Science

Source: Wallace, Walter (1971). The Logic of Science in Sociology. Aldine-Atherton: Chicago.

Theory
A theory
is a set of inter-related constructs (concepts), definitions and propositions that present a systematic view of phenomenon by specifying relations among variables with the purpose of explaining and predicting the phenomenon. is a coherent set of general propositions used as principles of explanation of the apparent relationships of certain observed phenomena. Two purposes of theory:
Prediction Understanding

Theory Building
Theories Propositions Concepts
Increasingly more abstract

Observation of objects and events (reality )

Researchers Operate at Two Levels

Two levels:
Theoryhypothesisconstruct and observation Inefficient sales force results into decline in sales. Theoryhypothesisconstruct (level 1) Observation (level 2)

Researchers Operate at Two Levels

Abstract level
In theory development, the level of knowledge expressing a concept that exists only as an idea or a quality apart from an object. concepts propositions

Empirical level
Level of knowledge reflecting that which is verifiable by experience or observation. variables Hypotheses

Concepts are Abstractions of Reality

Abstract Level CONCEPTS

Empirical Level

OBSERVATION OF OBJECTS AND EVENTS (REALITY)

Deductive Reasoning
The logical process of deriving a conclusion from a known premise or something known to be true.
We know that all managers are human beings. If we also know that John Smith is a manager, then we can deduce that John Smith is a human being.

Deductive Reasoning

Inductive Reasoning
The logical process of establishing a general proposition on the basis of observation of particular facts.
All managers that have ever been seen are human beings; therefore all managers are human beings.

Inductive Reasoning

Research: Definitions
The two words form a noun to describe a careful and systematic study in some field of knowledge, undertaken to establish facts or principles (Grinnell, 1997). A systematic way of asking questions (Drew, 1980). The scientific examination (re-examination of empirical data, collected by someone first hand, concerning the social and psychological forces operating in a situation (Monette et al., 1994).

Research
Literally, research (re-search) means search again. Organized analysis of any subject with suitable acknowledgement. A systematic, careful inquiry or examination to discover new information about something, or establish new relationships between things, and to expand and verify existing knowledge for some specified purposes.

Objectives of Research
To find out answers to questions by applying systematic and scientific techniques. To obtain familiarity of any phenomenon. To determine association between variables. To determine characteristics of an individual or group of activities and frequency of occurrence.

Features of a Good Research

Objectivity Control Generalization Free from personal bias Systematic (well planned research design) Reproducible Revealing of limitations Application of ethical standards

Types of Research
Basic Vs. Applied Research Descriptive Vs. Analytical Research Quantitative Vs. Qualitative Research Exploratory/Conceptual Vs. Causal/Empirical Research Historical Research One-time research Vs. Longitudinal Research Field setting Vs. Laboratory Research

Qualitative Research
"All research ultimately has a qualitative grounding" - Donald Campbell

Quantitative Research
"There's no such thing as qualitative data. Everything is either 1 or 0" - Fred Kerlinger The aim is to classify features, count them, and construct statistical models in an attempt to explain what is observed.

The aim is a complete, detailed description.

Researcher may only know roughly in Researcher knows clearly in advance advance what he/she is looking for. what he/she is looking for. Recommended during earlier phases of research projects. The design emerges as the study unfolds. Recommended during latter phases of research projects. All aspects of the study are carefully designed before data is collected.

Qualitative Research
Researcher is the data gathering instrument.

Quantitative Research
Researcher uses tools, such as questionnaires or equipment to collect numerical data.

Data is in the form of words, pictures or Data is in the form of numbers and objects. statistics. Objective seeks precise Subjective - individuals interpretation of measurement & analysis of target events is important ,e.g., uses participant concepts, e.g., uses surveys, observation, in-depth interviews etc. questionnaires etc. Qualitative data is more 'rich', time consuming, and less able to be generalized. Quantitative data is more efficient, able to test hypotheses, but may miss contextual detail.

Researcher tends to become subjectively Researcher tends to remain objectively immersed in the subject matter. separated from the subject matter.

Influence of Uncertainty on the Type of Research

Suggested Readings
Bernard, H. Russell (1999). Social Research Methods: Qualitative And Quantitative Approaches. Sage Publications. Kerlinger, Fred N. (1999). Foundations Of Behavioral Research. Wadsworth Publishing Company. Kothari, C. R. (2004). Research Methodology : Methods And Techniques. New Age. Ber, Bruce L. (1995). Qualitative Research Methods for the Social Sciences. Allyn & Bacon Yin, Robert K. (2008). Case Study Research: Design And Methods. Sage Publications. Hair, Joseph F., Black, B. & Babin, B. (2007). Multivariate Data Analysis. Pearson Education. Field, Andy (2009). Discovering Statistics Using SPSS. Sage Publications.