X 25

ISDN, B-ISDN, X.
25, Frame-Relay,
ATM Networks:
A Telephony View of Convergence
Architectures
Shivkumar Kalyanaraman
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
shivkuma@ecse.rpi.edu
http://www.ecse.rpi.edu/Homepages/shivkuma
Based in part on slides of Raj Jain (OSU), S. Keshav (Ensim)
Based also on the reference books: by U. Black, J.C. Bellamy
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Shivkumar Kalyanaraman

1
Overview
❑ Switched Packet-Data Services
❑ Integrated Services Vision and Concept Ingredients
❑ History: X.25, ISDN, Frame Relay
❑ ATM Networks: foundation for B-ISDN
❑ ATM Key Concepts
❑ ATM Signaling and PNNI Routing
❑ ATM Traffic Management
❑ IP over ATM: setting the stage for MPLS

2
A Telephony View of Convergence
❑ Separate Voice network (PSTN) and Data Networks
(Frame Relay, SMDS, etc.)
❑ PSTN sometimes used as a data network backbone, but
❑ PSTN is circuit switched (voice-optimized) and PSTN-
based WAN not efficient
❑ Delay sensitive traffic such as voice not possible on
data networks since no guarantee of QoS
❑ Initial attempts to converge data and voice network not
too successful, i.e. ISDN
❑ B-ISDN and ATM networks viewed as the convergence

end-point leading world-wide domination of telephony
driven standards
3
Switched Packet-Data Services
❑ After the success of T1, the telephone carriers saw the
growth in packet switched networks
❑ Evolved their own flavors of packet switching, notably
X.25, ISDN, SMDS, Frame Relay, ATM etc
❑ Key concept: Switched services
❑ Switched services: (aka dial-up service)
❑ Digital communications that is active only when the
customer initiates a connection.
❑ Subsumes both circuit switched and packet switched.
❑ Customer to be billed only when the line is active.
❑ Led to activity-based or average-load-based pricing
models that did not necessarily have a distance-based
component
❑ Vs peak-rate and distance-sensitive T-carrier pricing
4
Ingredients
❑ Signaling and setup of a virtual circuit (I.e. nailing down a
switched path) is a common feature
❑ Signaling was heavyweight, and was coupled to
heavyweight QoS routing
❑ Contrast this to “connectionless, best-effort” Internet
❑ Long 20-byte global addresses used only in signaling

❑ Short 4-byte local labels (aka DLCI etc) used in
packets (cells): “label-switching”
❑ Large address space, low per-packet overhead
❑ ISDN/B-ISDN vision of an end-to-end integrated digital

network:
❑ Rich QoS capabilities developed: support for voice,
data, Institute
Rensselaer Polytechnic video traffic Shivkumar Kalyanaraman
5
Ingredients (contd)
❑ X.25 -> Frame relay/ATM: reduction of hop-by-hop
processing complexities
❑ Led to the development of high-speed switches and
networks
❑ A serious attempt to inter-network with a variety of
data-networking protocols (IP, Ethernet etc)
❑ Integration (“coupling”) of too many features led to slow

rollout, enormous overall complexity
❑ Failure to attain the end-to-end market vision
❑ Current trend is to “de-couple” building blocks of the
architecture within the context of IP/MPLS, sacrificing
strict performance guarantees.
6
X.25

7
X.25
❑ First packet switching interface in the telephony world
❑ Issued in 1976 and revised in 1980, 1984, 1988, and
1992.
❑ Data Terminal Equipment (DTE) to Data Communication
Equipment (DCE) interface
❑ User to network interface (UNI)
❑ Slow speeds, used in point-of-sale apps (eg: credit-card
validation) and several apps abroad

8
X.25 Virtual Circuits
❑ Circuit: Pin a path, reserve resources, use TDM based transmission

❑ Virtual Circuit = Virtual Call: pin a path, optionally reserve resources
❑ Connection-oriented: Setup an end-to-end association (data-
structure); path not pinned
❑ Connectionless: stateless. No path, no end-to-end association
❑ Two Types of Virtual Circuits:
❑ Switched virtual circuit (SVC): Similar to phone call
❑ Permanent virtual circuit (PVC): Similar to leased lines
❑ Up to 4095 VCs on one X.25 interface

9
X.25 Protocol Layers
❑ Note: the three modular layers were co-specified by the

same standards body
❑ Layers:
❑ X.21 replaced by EIA-232 (RS-232C)
❑ LAP-B = Link access procedure - Balanced
❑ Packet layer = Connection-oriented transport over
virtual circuits

10
X.25 Physical Layer
❑ Electrical and mechanical specifications of the interface

❑ X.21 = 15-pin digital recommendation
❑ X.21bis = X.21 twice = X.21 second
❑ Interim analog specification to allow existing
equipment to be upgraded.
❑ Now more common than X.21 => X.21 Rev 2
❑ RS-232-C developed by Electronics Industries

❑ Association of America (EIA) is most common
❑ Uses 25-pin connector. Commonly used in PCs.
11
Link Layer Roots: HDLC Family
❑ Original:
❑ Synchronous Data Link Control (SDLC): IBM
❑ Derivatives:
❑ High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC): ISO
❑ Link Access Procedure-Balanced (LAPB): X.25
❑ Link Access Procedure for the D channel (LAPD):
ISDN
❑ Link Access Procedure for modems (LAPM): V.42
❑ Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP): Internet
❑ Logical Link Control (LLC): IEEE
❑ Link Access Procedure for half-duplex links (LAPX): Teletex
❑ Advanced Data Communications Control Procedures (ADCCP):
ANSI
❑ V.120 and Frame relay also use HDLC
12
HDLC (contd)
❑ Primary station: Issue commands (master)
❑ Secondary Station:Issue responses (slave)
❑ Hybrids:
❑ Combined Station: Both primary and secondary: a.k.a
Asynchronous Balanced Mode (ABM)
❑ Balanced Configuration: Two combined stations
❑ Unbalanced Configuration: One or more secondary
❑ Normal Response Mode (NRM): Response from

secondary
❑ Asynchronous Response Mode (ARM): Secondary may
respond before command
13
LAPB
❑ Uses balanced mode subset of HDLC between DTE and
DCE
❑ Uses 01111110 as frame delimiter
❑ Uses bit stuffing to avoid delimiters inside the frames
❑ Uses HDLC frame format
❑ Point-to-point: Only two stations - DTE (A), DCE (B)
❑ Addresses: A=00000011, B=00000001
❑ Address = Destination Addresses in Commands

14
HDLC frames
❑ Information Frames: User data
❑ Piggybacked Acks: Next frame expected
❑ Poll/Final = Command/Response
❑ Supervisory Frames: Flow and error control
❑ Go back N and Selective Reject
❑ Final No more data to send
❑ Unnumbered Frames: Control
❑ Mode setting commands and responses
❑ Information transfer commands and responses
❑ Recovery commands and responses
❑ Miscellaneous commands and responses

15
HDLC Operation
SABM: Set
Asynchronous
Balanced Mode
UA: Unnumbered
ACK
DISC: disconnect
RR: Receiver Ready
RNR: Receiver Not

Ready
I: information frame
Heavyweight Link-Setup and Per-Packet Acking !!
16
HDLC Operation (Contd)

17
X.25 Packet Level: Layer 3
❑ Packet Level = “End-to-end” for X.25 networks
❑ But really Layer 3 (network layer)
❑ Packet level procedures:

❑ Establishment and clearing of virtual calls
❑ Management of PVCs
❑ Flow Control
❑ Recovery from error conditions

18
X.25 Packet Level (Layer 3) Signaling Operation
Redundant signaling and reliability functions at L2 and L3!

19
X.25 Packet Format
❑ GFI = Packet formatting information

❑ PTI = 20 possible packet types (for de-multiplexing)
❑ Logical Channel Group and Channel Numbers:

❑ Virtual circuit identifier

20
(Layer 3) Packet Format (contd)
❑ Fragmentation/Reassembly support:
❑ M = More segments
❑ Layer 3 reliability:
❑ P(R) and P(S) refer to packet sequence #
❑ Different from N(R) and N(S) - frame sequence #

21
(Layer 3) Packet Format (Contd)
❑ 3-bit and 7-bit sequence number options possible

❑ Again, note: these are layer 3 sequence numbers…
22
ISDN: Integrated Services Digital Network

23
ISDN: End-to-End Digital Services Vision

24
ISDN Configurations

25
BRI and PRI Services
* Basic Rate ISDN and Primary Rate ISDN.

* BRI can transmit data up to 128 kbps.
* PRI (transmitted over a T1 line) can transmit data up to 1.536 Mbps.
An LDN (Local Directory Number): customer's 7-digit ISDN phone
number.
A SPID (Service Profile Identifier): unique ID of an ISDN line or service
provider (10+ digits long and includes the LDN).
26
Basic Rate ISDN (BRI): contd
❑ Basic Rate ISDN service divides a standard telephone
line into three digital channels capable of simultaneous
voice and data transmission.
❑ The three channels are comprised of two Bearer (B)
channels at 64 kpbs each and a data (D) channel at
16 kbps, also known as 2B+D.
❑ The B channels are used to carry voice, video, and
data to the customer's site (hence the term “integrated
services”).
❑ The D channel is used to carry signaling and
supplementary services.
❑ Multiple B channels can be used at the same time.
The D channel can also be used to carry packetized
data.
27
BRI and Reference Model

28
BRI Reference Model Details
❑ U-interface: U-interface is a 2-wire digital telephone line that runs
from the telephone company's central office to an NT1 device.
❑ NT1 (Network Termination Type 1): NT1 is a Basic Rate ISDN-only

device that converts a service provider's U-interface to a customer's
S/T-interface. Stand-alone or integrated into a terminal adapter.
❑ S/T-interface: S/T-interface is a common way of referring to either

an S- or T-interface. This can be used to connect directly to an ISDN
2B+D NT1 or an NT2 device with a terminal adapter. This type of
interface is often found on Terminal Equipment Type 1.
❑ TE1: TE1 (Terminal Equipment Type 1) is ISDN-ready equipment

that can directly connect to the ISDN line (often using an S/ T-
interface). Eg: ISDN phones, ISDN routers, ISDN computers, etc.

29
BRI Ref Model Details: Contd
❑ TA (terminal adapter): TA is a device that allows non-
ISDN-ready equipment to connect to an ISDN line. This
device can have an integrated NT1.
❑ R-interface: R-interface is a non-ISDN interface such as

an EIA-232 or a V.35 interface. This type of interface is
often found on TE2.
❑ TE2 (Terminal Equipment Type 2): TE2 is equipment

that cannot directly connect to an ISDN line. A common
example of this device is a PC, or a non-ISDN-ready
router. A TA must be used to connect to the ISDN line.
30
Primary Rate ISDN (PRI)
❑ Primary Rate Interface (PRI) ISDN is a user-to-network

interface (UNI) consisting of:
❑ Twenty-three 64 kbps bearer (B) channels, and
❑ One 64 kbps signaling (D) channel (aka 23B+D)
❑ Cumulatively carried over a 1.544 Mbps DS-1 circuit.
❑ The B channels carry data, voice or video traffic. The
D channel is used to set up calls on the B channels.
31
ISDN Reference Model

32
LAPD Framing in ISDN

33
Q.931: ISDN Signaling

34
Frame Relay

35
Dis-economics of Leased Lines…
❑ Multiple logical links => Multiple connections
❑ Four nodes => 12 ports (full mesh!!)
❑ 12 local exchange carrier (LEC) access lines,
❑ 6 inter-exchange carrier (IXC) connections
❑ One more node => 8 more ports, 8 more LEC lines, 4
more IXC circuits (same issues as full mesh in LANs)
❑ Charged both by bandwidth and by the mile!

36
X.25/Frame Relay Niche
❑ 6 IXC circuits (star vs full mesh: FR network is like a “hub” or “switch” in
a star-topology)
❑ One more node: 1 more port,
❑ 1 more access line, 4 more IXC circuits
❑ Share local leased lines to LECs (aka Virtual Private Networks
(VPNs) or “closed-user groups” (CUGs))
❑ Tradeoffs:
❑ Packetized L2 (FR) or L3 (X.25) service instead of digital L1 service
(T-carrier)
❑ Service guarantees weaker (delay, jitter, loss; PIR/CIR vs peak rate)

37
X.25 vs Frame Relay
X.25 Message Exchanges Frame Relay Message Exchanges
FR obviously more efficient from a protocol standpoint than X.25,

in addition to the compelling economics vs leased lines
38
X.25 vs Frame Relay
❑ X.25: interface between host and packet-switching
network
❑ 3 layers: phy, link, packet
❑ Heavyweight: error control at every link as well as
layer 3: twelve messages for one packet transfer!!
❑ X.25 offers no QoS capability
❑ Frame relay breaks up link-layer into two parts:

❑ LAPF-core and LAPF-control
❑ Network nodes only implement LAPF-core
❑ Frame Switching is a service that implements both
❑ Frame relay uses a separate VC for control channel in vs

in-band control approach used in X.25
39
Frame Relay Overview
❑ Frame Relay: “digital packet network” providing benefits
dedicated T-1 link, but without the expense of multiple
dedicated circuits.
❑ Frame Relay leverages the underlying telephone network
❑ Frame Relay distance-insensitive and average-rate
pricing is an ideal, cost-effective solution for networks
with bursty traffic
❑ Especially those that require connections to multiple locations
and where a certain degree of delay is acceptable.
❑ FR also allows a voice circuit to share the same virtual
connection as a data circuit, again, saving money.
❑ Frame Relay assumes higher-speed, low error-rate
underlying PHY.
❑ Switches do not perform hop-by-hop error correction (other than
discarding corrupted frames) or flow control (other than setting
FECN/BECN
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute bits) Shivkumar Kalyanaraman
40
Frame Relay: Key Features
❑ X.25 simplified
❑ No flow and error control
❑ Out-of-band signaling
❑ Two layers
❑ Protocol multiplexing in the second layer
❑ Congestion control added
❑ Higher speed possible.
❑ X.25 suitable to 200 kbps vs
❑ Frame relay suitable to 2.048 Mbps.
❑ Frame Relay = Unreliable multiplexing service
❑ X.25 Switching = Relaying + Ack + Flow control + Error
recovery +loss recovery
41
Frame Relay Reference Model & Lingo
❑ PVC: Permanent Virtual Circuit

❑ DLCI: Data Link Connection Identifier
❑ CIR: Committed Information Rate
❑ CSU: Channel Service Unit
❑ UNI: User-to-Network Interface
❑ NNI: Network-to-Network Interface
❑ DTE: Data Terminal Equipment
❑ DE: Discard Eligible
❑ FRAD: Frame Relay Access Device
❑ DSU:
Rensselaer Data
Polytechnic Service Unit
Institute Shivkumar Kalyanaraman
42
Frame Relay Lingo (contd)
❑ Frame Relay Access Device – FRAD: generic name for a device
that multiplexes/formats traffic for entering a Frame Relay network.
❑ Access Line: A communications line interconnecting a Frame
Relay-compatible device to a Frame Relay switch.
❑ Bursty/burstiness: Sporadic use of bandwidth that does not use the
total bandwidth of a circuit 100% of the time.
❑ CIR (Committed Information Rate): The committed rate (usually <
the access/peak rate) which the carrier guarantees to be available
❑ DE (Discard Eligibility): A user-set bit: frame may be discarded
❑ DLCI (Data Link Connection Identifier): A unique number IDing a
particular PVC endpoint: has local significance only to that channel.
❑ BECN (Backward Explicit Congestion Notification): A bit set by a
FR network to notify an interface device (DTE) that congestion
avoidance procedures should be initiated by the sending device.
❑ FECN (Forward Explicit Congestion Notification): A bit set by a
FR network to notify an interface device (DTE) that congestion
avoidance procedures should be initiated by the receiving device.
43
Frame Relay Lingo (Contd)
❑ DTE (Data Terminal Equipment): User terminal
equipment which creates information for transmission; for
example, a user's PC or a router.
❑ CSU/DSU: A customer owned, physical layer device that
connects DTE (eg: router) to an access line (eg: T1),
from the network service provider.
❑ Traditionally, DSUs were network-owned equipment
used in conjunction with customer-owned CSUs to
terminate access lines.
❑ Because of regulatory changes, there is no need for
physical separation of CSU and DSU any longer =>
combination CSU/DSUs.
44
Datalink Control Identifiers (DLCI)
* Similar to X.25 DLCI: Only local significance

* Multiple logical connections over one physical circuit
* Some ranges pre-assigned
Eg: DLCI = 0 is used for signaling
45
Frame Relay UNI (aka FUNI)
❑ UNI = User-network Interface

❑ LAPF = Link Access Protocol - Frame Mode Services
❑ LAPD = Link Access Protocol - D Channel
❑ Control Plane:
❑ Signaling over D channel (D = Delta = Signaling)
❑ Data transfer over B, D, or H (B = Bearer)
❑ LAPD used for reliable signaling
❑ ISDN Signaling Q.933 + Q.931 re-used for signaling messages
❑ Service Access Point Identifier (SAPI) in LAPD = 0
=>Polytechnic
Rensselaer Q.933Institute
+ Q.931 Frame relay message Shivkumar Kalyanaraman
46
Frame Relay: Data (User) Plane
❑ Link Access Procedure for Frame-Mode bearer services
(LAPF)
❑ Q.922 = Enhanced LAPD (Q.921) = LAPD + Congestion Control
❑ Functions:
❑ Frame delimiting, alignment, and flag transparency
❑ Virtual circuit multiplexing and de-multiplexing
❑ Octet alignment => Integer number of octets before zero-bit
insertion
❑ Checking min and max frame sizes
❑ Error detection, Sequence and non-duplication
❑ Congestion control
❑ LAPF control may be used for end-to-end signaling

❑ A FR-variant called “frame-switching” uses this at every hop
47
Frame Relay: LAPF-Core Protocol
❑ LAPF is similar to LAPD: Flag, bit stuffing, FCS

❑ No control frames in LAPF-Core => No control field
❑ No in-band signaling unlike X.25
❑ No flow control, no error control, no sequence numbers
❑ Logical Link Control (LLC) may be used on the top of LAPF core
48
LAPF Address Field

49
Frame Relay Traffic Management
❑ Minimum rate guarantee: Committed Information Rate
(CIR)
❑ Maximum burst rate: Peak Information Rate (PIR)
❑ TM enforcement model:
❑ Discard Control (DE Bit) set on all packets when CIR <
user rate < PIR
❑ Network usually over-provisioned for ΣCIR, but under-
provisioned for ΣPIR
❑ Can drop packets with DE set during congestion (I.e.
when absolutely necessary)
❑ Congestion control hooks:
❑ Backward Explicit Congestion Notification (BECN)
❑ Forward Explicit Congestion Notification (FECN)
❑ Very nice ideas later proposed as ECN in TCP/IP
❑ But generally ignored in practice by CPE equipment
Shivkumar Kalyanaraman
50
CIR/PIR Service Example

51
Leaky Bucket Policing @ Network Edge

52
Leaky Bucket Parameters
❑ Committed Information Rate (CIR)
❑ Committed Burst Size (Bc):
❑ Excess Burst Size (Be)
❑ Measurement interval T
❑ T = Bc/CIR
❑ Policing actions:
❑ Between Bc and Bc + Be => Mark DE bit
❑ Over Be => Discard

53
FECN
❑ Forward Explicit Congestion Notification (FECN)

❑ Source sets FECN = 0
❑ Networks set FECN if avg Q >1
❑ Dest tells source to inc/dec the rate (or window)
❑ Start with R = CIR (or W=1)
❑ If more than 50% bits set => decrease to 0.875 × R (or
0.875W)
❑ If less than 50% bits set => increase to 1.0625 × R (or
min{W+1, Wmax})
❑ If idle for a long time, reset R = CIR (or W=1)
54
BECN
❑ Backward Explicit Congestion Notification (BECN)
❑ Set BECN bit in reverse traffic or send Consolidated Link-

Layer Management (CLLM) message to source
❑ On first BECN bit: Set R = CIR
❑ On further "S" BECNs: R=0.675 CIR, 0.5 CIR, 0.25
CIR
❑ On S/2 BECNs clear: Slowly increase R = 1.125 R
❑ If idle for long, R = CIR

55
BECN (Contd)
❑ For window based control:
❑ S = One frame interval
❑ Start with W=1
❑ First BECN W = max(0.625W,1)
❑ Next S BECNs W = max(0.625W,1)
❑ S/2 clear BECNs => W = max(W+1, Wmax)
❑ CLLM contains a list of congested DLCIs

56
ATM: Asynchronous Transfer Mode

57
Why ATM networks?
❑ Driven by the integration of services and performance
requirements of both telephony and data networking
❑ “broadband integrated service vision” (B-ISDN)
❑ Telephone networks support a single quality of service
❑ and is expensive to boot
❑ Internet supports no quality of service
❑ but is flexible and cheap
❑ ATM networks are meant to support a range of service
qualities at a reasonable cost
❑ Intended to subsume both the telephone network and
the Internet

58
ATM Concepts
1. Virtual circuits
2. Fixed-size packets (cells): allowed fast h/w switching
3. Small packet size
4. Statistical multiplexing
5. Integrated services
6. Good management and traffic engineering features
7. Scalability in speed and network size
Together
can carry multiple types of traffic
with end-to-end quality of service

59
ATM Applications
❑ ATM Deployments:
❑ Frame Relay backbones
❑ Internet backbones
❑ Aggregating Residential broadband networks (Cable,
DSL, ISDN)
❑ Carrier infrastructures for the telephone and private-
line networks
❑ Failed market tests of ATM:

❑ ATM workgroup and campus networks
❑ ATM enterprise network consolidation
❑ End-to-end ATM…

60
ATM vs Synchronous (Phone) Networks
❑ Phone networks are synchronous (periodic).

❑ ATM = Asynchronous Transfer Mode
❑ Phone networks use circuit-switching.
❑ ATM networks use “Packet” or “cell” Switching
❑ In phone networks, all rates are multiple of 64 kbps.
❑ With ATM service, you can get any rate, and you can
vary your rate with time.
❑ With current phone networks, all high speed circuits are
manually setup.
❑ ATM allows “dialing” any speed & rapid provisioning
61
ATM vs Data Networks (Internet)
❑ ATM is “virtual circuit” based: the path (and optionally
resources on the path) is reserved before transmission
❑ Internet Protocol (IP) is connectionless, and end-to-end resource
reservations not possible
❑ RSVP is a new signaling protocol in the Internet
❑ ATM Cells: Fixed/small size: tradeoff between voice/data
❑ IP packets: variable size
❑ ATM provides QoS routing coupled to signaling (PNNI)
❑ Internet provides “best-effort” routing (combination of
RIP/OSPF/IS-IS/BGP-4), aiming only for connectivity
❑ Addressing:
❑ ATM uses 20-byte global NSAP addresses for signaling and 32-
bit locally-assigned labels in cells
❑ IP uses 32-bit global addresses in all packets
❑ ATM offers sophisticated traffic management
❑ TCP/IP: congestion control is packet-loss-based
62
Brief History of ATM
❑ 1996+: death of ATM in the enterprise, rollouts in

carrier networks

63
ATM Interfaces
❑ UNI = User-Network Interface (Private & Public)

❑ NNI = Network Node Interface (Private and Public)
❑ B-ICI = Broadband Inter-Carrier Interface
❑ DXI = Data Exchange Interface Shivkumar Kalyanaraman
64
ATM Forum Standards

65
ATM Switch Hierarchy

66
ATM Layers
❑ Adaptation: mapping apps (eg: voice, data) to ATM cells

❑ Physical layer: SONET etc
❑ ATM Layer: Transmission/Switching/Reception,
Congestion Control, Cell header processing, Sequential
delivery etc
67
AAL Sublayers and AAL5:
❑ AAL Sublayers
❑ Convergence Sublayer (CS)
❑ Determines Class of Service (CoS) for incoming traffic
❑ Provides a specific AAL service at an AAL network service
access point (NSAP)
❑ Segmentation and Reassembly Sublayer (SAR)
❑ Segments higher-level user data into 48-byte cells at the sending
node and reassembles cells at receiving node Shivkumar Kalyanaraman
68
AAL Lingo….

69
AAL Types
❑ AAL1: CBR voice

❑ AAL5: data…
70
ATM Physical Layer Functions
❑ Transports ATM cells on a communications channel and
defines mechanical specs (connectors, etc.)
❑ 2 Sub-layers
❑ Transmission Convergence Sub-layer
❑ Maps cells into the physical layer frame format (e.g.
DS1, STS3) on transmit and delineates ATM cells in
the received bit stream
❑ Generates HEC on transmit
❑ Generates idle cells for cell rate decoupling, or speed
matching
❑ Physical Medium Sub-layer
❑ Medium dependent functions like bit transfer, bit
alignment, OEO
71
Physical Layers
❑ Multimode Fiber: 100 Mbps using 4b/5b,
❑ 155 Mbps SONET STS-3c, 155 Mbps 8b/10b
❑ Single-mode Fiber: 155 Mbps STS-3c, 622 Mbps
❑ Plastic Optical Fiber: 155 Mbps
❑ Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): 155 Mbps 8b/10b
❑ Coax: 45 Mbps, DS3, 155 Mbps
❑ Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
❑ UTP-3 (phone wire) at 25.6, 51.84, 155 Mbps
❑ UTP-5 (Data grade UTP) at 155 Mbps
❑ DS1, DS3, STS-3c, STM-1, E1, E3, J2, n × T1
❑ Take-home message: Serious attempt to inter-operate

with several L1, L2 and L3 technologies Shivkumar Kalyanaraman
72
ATM-SONET Mapping
Cells are mapped row-wise into the frame

Cells could contain data or be empty
73
ATM Concepts: Virtual Paths & Virtual Channels
❑ VCs: way to ‘dial’ up and get bandwidth

74
Virtual circuits: Label Concept &
Rationale for Signaling
❑ Two ways to use “packets”
❑ carry entire destination address in header
❑ carry only an identifier, a.k.a “label”
❑ Labels have “local” significance, addresses have “global”
significance
❑ Signaling protocol: fundamentally maps “global addresses”
or paths (sequence of addresses) to local labels
Data Sample
VCI Data ATM cell
Addr. Data Datagram

75
VPI/VCI Assignment and Use
❑ All packets must follow the same
path (why?)
❑ Switches store per-VCI state: eg:
QoS info
❑ Signaling => separation of data
and control
❑ Small Ids can be looked up
(exact match) quickly in
hardware
❑ harder to do this with IP
addresses (longest-prefix
match)
❑ Setup must precede data transfer
❑ delays short messages
❑ Switched vs. Permanent virtual
circuits
76
ATM Switches

77
ATM Cell Structure

78
ATM Cell Structure: Different View

79
ATM Concepts: Fixed-size packets
❑ Pros
❑ Simpler buffer hardware
❑ packet arrival and departure requires us to manage
fixed buffer sizes
❑ Simpler line scheduling
❑ each cell takes a constant chunk of bandwidth to
transmit
❑ Easier to build large parallel packet switches
❑ Cons
❑ overhead for sending small amounts of data
❑ segmentation and reassembly cost
❑ last unfilled cell after segmentation wastes bandwidth

80
ATM Concepts: Small packet size
❑ At 8KHz, each byte is 125 microseconds
❑ The smaller the cell, the less an endpoint has to
wait to fill it
❑ Low packetization delay
❑ The smaller the packet, the larger the header
overhead
❑ Standards body balanced the two to prescribe 48
bytes + 5 byte header = 53 bytes
❑ => maximal efficiency of 90.57%

81
Error Characteristics & Header Protection

82
ATM Concepts: Statistical
multiplexing with QoS
❑ Trade off worst-case delay against speed of output trunk

❑ Whenever long term average rate differs from peak, we
can trade off service rate for delay
❑ Build scheduling, buffer management, policing entities to manage
the zero-sum games of delay and bandwidth
❑ Key to building packet-switched networksShivkumar
with QoSKalyanaraman
83
QoS Big Picture: Control/Data Planes
C o n tr o l P la n e : S ig n a lin g + A d m is s io n C o n tr o l o r
S L A (C o n tr a c tin g ) + P r o v is io n in g /T r a ffic E n g in e e r in g
R o u te r
In te r n e tw o r k o r W A N
W o r k s t a t io n R o u te r
R o u te r W o r k s t a t io n
D a ta P la n e : T r a ffic c o n d itio n in g (s h a p in g , p o lic in g , m a r k in g

e tc ) + T r a ffic C la s s ific a tio n + S c h e d u lin g , B u ffe r m a n a g e m e n t

84
ATM Concepts: Service Categories
❑ ABR (Available bit rate):
❑ Source follows network feedback.
❑ Max throughput with minimum loss.
❑ UBR (Unspecified bit rate):
❑ User sends whenever it wants. No feedback. No
guarantee. Cells may be dropped during congestion.
❑ CBR (Constant bit rate): User declares required rate.
❑ Throughput, delay and delay variation guaranteed.
❑ VBR (Variable bit rate): Declare avg and max rate.
❑ rt-VBR (Real-time): Conferencing.
❑ Max delay guaranteed.
❑ nrt-VBR (non-real time): Stored video.

85
CBR and VBR

86
Classes of Service
❑ The Convergence Sublayer (CS) interprets the type and
format of incoming information based on 1 of 4 classes of
service assigned by the application
❑ Class A: Constant bit rate (CBR), Connection oriented, strict timing

relationship between source and destination, i.e voice
❑ Class B: Variable bit rate (VBR), Connection oriented, strict timing,
e.g. packet-mode video for video conferencing
❑ Class C: Connection oriented VBR, not strict timing, e.g. LAN
❑ data transfer applications such as Frame Relay
❑ Class D: Connectionless VBR, not strict timing, e.g. LAN data
❑ transfer applications such as IP

87
ABR vs UBR
❑ ABR
❑ Queue in the source
❑ Pushes congestion to edges
❑ Good if end-to-end ATM
❑ Fair
❑ Good for the provider
❑ UBR
❑ Queue in the network
❑ No backpressure
❑ Same end-to-end or backbone
❑ Generally unfair
❑ Simple for user

88
Guaranteed Frame Rate (GFR)
❑ UBR with minimum cell rate (MCR) Þ UBR+
❑ Frame based service
❑ Complete frames are accepted or discarded in
the switch
❑ Traffic shaping is frame-based.
❑ All cells of the frame have the same cell loss
priority (CLP)
❑ All frames below MCR are given CLP =0 service.
❑ All frames above MCR are given best effort
❑ (CLP =1) service.

89
ATM Signaling and QoS Routing (PNNI)

90
ATM: Connection Setup

91
ATM: Control/Data/Management Planes

92
ATM: Control Plane

93
Protocol Stacks for ATM Signaling

94
Q.931 Message Format

95
Sample Q.931 Message Types

96
Information Element Formats

97
Sample Information Elements

98
ATM Bandwidth Contract

99
ATM Addresses: Basis for Signaling
❑ Three NSAP-like (Network Service Access Point)

address formats:
❑ DCC ATM Format,
❑ ICD ATM Format,
❑ E.164Institute
Rensselaer Polytechnic ATM Format Shivkumar Kalyanaraman
100
Address Hierarchy in ATM
❑ Multiple formats.
❑ All 20 Bytes long addresses.
❑ Left-to-right hierarchical
❑ Level boundaries can be put in any bit position
❑ 13-byte prefix => 104 levels of hierarchy possible

101
Recall: Flat vs Structured Addresses
❑ Flat addresses: no structure in them to facilitate scalable
routing
❑ Eg: IEEE 802 LAN addresses
❑ Hierarchical addresses:
❑ Network part (prefix) and host part
❑ Helps identify direct or indirectly connected nodes

102
ATM Address Formats
❑ Authority and Format Identifier (AFI) & IDI:

❑ 39 = ISO DCC, 47 = British Stds Institute ICD, 45 = ITU ISDN
❑ ISDN uses E.164 numbers (up to 15 BCD digits)
❑ ATM forum extended E.164 addresses to NSAP format.
❑ E.164 number is filled with leading zeros to make 15 digits. A F16
is padded to make 8 bytes.
❑ End System Identifier (ESI): 48-bit IEEE MAC address.
❑ Selector is for use inside the host and is not used for routing.
❑ All ATM addresses are 20 bytes long. Shivkumar Kalyanaraman
103
NSAP vs SNPA Addressing: A Clarification
❑ NSAP = Network Service Access
Point. Identifies network layer service
entry
❑ SNPA = Sub-network point of
attachment. Identifies the interface to
sub-network
❑ SNPA address (or part of it) is used
to carry the packet across the
network.
❑ CLNP uses NSAP to deliver the packet

to the right entity in the host.
❑ ATM uses NSAP-like encoding but
ATM addresses identify SNPA and not
NSAP.

104
ATM Connection Types
❑ Permanent and Switched
❑ Point to point
❑ Symmetric or asymmetric bandwidth (Uni- or bi-
directional)
❑ Point-to-multipoint: Data flow in one direction only.
❑ Data replicated by network.
❑ Leaf Initiated Join (LIJ) or non-LIJ

105
ATM Switch: Model & Call Processing

106
ATM Connection Setup

107
ATM Connection Release

108
ATM Connection Release (contd)

109
ATM Routing: PNNI
❑ Private Network-to-network Interface

❑ Private Network Node Interface
110
Private Network to Node Interface (PNNI)
❑ Link State Routing Protocol for ATM Networks
❑ “A hierarchy mechanism ensures that this

protocol scales well for large world-wide ATM
networks. A key feature of the PNNI hierarchy
mechanism is its ability to automatically configure
itself in networks in which the address structure
reflects the topology…”

111
PNNI Features
❑ Scales to very large networks.
❑ Supports hierarchical routing.
❑ Supports QoS.
❑ Supports multiple routing metrics and attributes.
❑ Uses source routed connection setup.
❑ Operates in the presence of partitioned areas.
❑ Provides dynamic routing, responsive to changes in
resource availability.
❑ Separates the routing protocol used within a peer group
from that used among peer groups.
❑ Interoperates with external routing domains, not
necessarily using PNNI.
❑ Supports both physical links and tunneling over VPCs.
112
PNNI Terminology (partial)
❑ Peer group: A group of nodes at the same hierarchy
❑ Border node: one link crosses the boundary
❑ Logical group node: Representation of a group as a
single point
❑ Child node: Any node at the next lower hierarchy level
❑ Parent node: LGN at the next higher hierarchy level
❑ Logical links: links between logical nodes
❑ Peer group leader (PGL): Represents a group at the next
higher level.
❑ Node with the highest "leadership priority" and highest ATM
address is elected as a leader.
❑ PGL acts as a logical group node.
❑ Uses same ATM address with a different selector value.
❑ Peer group ID: Address prefixes up to 13 bytes
113
PNNI Terminology

114
Hierarchical Routing: PNNI

115
Hierarchical Routing (contd)

116
Topology State (QoS) Parameters

117
Call Admission Control

118
Source Routing
❑ Source specifies route as a list of all intermediate systems

in the route (original idea in token ring)
❑ Designated Transit List (DTL): (next slide)
❑ Source route across each level of hierarchy
❑ Entry switch of each peer group specifies complete
route through that group
❑ Set of DTLs and manipulations implemented as a stack
119
DTL Example

120
Crank back and Alternate Path Routing
❑ If a call fails along a particular route:
❑ It is cranked back to the originator of the top DTL
❑ The originator finds another route or
❑ Cranks back to the generator of the higher level
source route

121
Traffic Management: ATM

122
Traffic Management Functions
❑ Connection Admission Control (CAC): Can requested bandwidth and
quality of service be supported?
❑ Traffic Shaping: Limit burst length. Space-out cells.
❑ Usage Parameter Control (UPC): Monitor and control traffic at the
network entrance.
❑ Network Resource Management: Scheduling, Queueing, virtual path
resource reservation
❑ Selective cell discard:
❑ Cell Loss Priority (CLP) = 1 cells may be dropped
❑ Cells of non-compliant connections may be dropped
❑ Frame Discarding
❑ Feedback Control: ABR schemes

123
CAC and UPC

124
Traffic Contract Parameters
❑ Peak Cell Rate (PCR): 1/T

❑ Sustained Cell Rate (SCR): Average over a long period
❑ Burst Tolerance (BT) ts : GCRA limit parameter wrt SCR
GCRA(1/Ts, ts)
❑ Maximum Burst Size: MBS = 1+BT/(1/SCR-1/PCR) 
❑ BT ∈[(MBS-1)(1/SCR-1/PCR), MBS(1/SCR- 1/PCR)]
❑ Cell Transfer Delay (CTD): First bit in to last bit out

❑ Cell Delay Variation (CDV): ~ Max CTD - Min CTD
❑ Peak-to-peak CDV
❑ Cell Delay Variation Tolerance (CDVT) t = GCRA limit parameter wrt
PCR Þ GCRA(T, t)
❑ Cell Loss Ratio (CLR): Cells lost /Totals cells sent
❑ Minimum cell rate (MCR)
125
Peak-to-Peak CDV

126
Service Categories

127
Leaky Bucket: Basis for Policing
❑ Provides traffic shaping: I.e. smooth bursty arrivals

❑ Provides traffic policing: Ensure that users are sending
traffic within specified limits
❑ Excess traffic discarded or admitted with CLP = 1
❑ GCRA in ATM requires increment (inter-cell arrival time)
and limit (on earliness)
❑ Two implementations: Virtual scheduling and leaky
bucket
128
Generic Cell Rate Algorithm

129
GCRA: Virtual Scheduling Algorithm

130
GCRA: Leaky Bucket Algorithm

131
GCRA: Examples

132
Maximum Burst Size

133
ATM ABR: Binary Rate Scheme
❑ DECbit scheme in many standards since 1986.

❑ Forward explicit congestion notification (FECN) in
❑ Frame relay
❑ Explicit forward congestion indicator (EFCI) set to 0 at
source. Congested switches set EFCI to 1
❑ Every nth cell, destination sends an resource
management (RM) cell to the source
134
ABR: Explicit Rate Scheme

135
ABR: Segment-by-Segment Control

136
Guaranteed Frame Rate (GFR)
❑ UBR with minimum cell rate (MCR) Þ UBR+
❑ Frame based service
❑ Complete frames are accepted or discarded in
the switch
❑ Traffic shaping is frame based.
❑ All cells of the frame have the same cell loss
priority (CLP)
❑ All frames below MCR are given CLP =0 service.
❑ All frames above MCR are given best effort (CLP
=1) service.

137
IP OVER ATM

138
ATM: Lan Emulation

139
ATM Lan Emulation (LANE)
❑ One ATM LAN can be n virtual LANs
❑ Logical subnets interconnected via routers
❑ Need drivers in hosts to support each LAN
❑ Only IEEE 802.3 and IEEE 802.5 frame formats
supported. (FDDI can be easily done.)
❑ Doesn't allow passive monitoring
❑ No token management (SMT), collisions, beacon frames.
❑ Allows larger frames.

140
LAN Emulation (Contd)
❑ LAN Emulation driver replaces Ethernet driver and

passes the networking layer packets to ATM driver.
❑ Each ATM host is assigned an Ethernet address.
❑ LAN Emulation Server translates Ethernet addresses to
ATM addresses
❑ Hosts set up a VC and exchange packets
❑ All software that runs of Ethernet can run on LANE
141
LAN Emulation (Contd)

142
Protocol Layering w/ LAN Emulation

143
Terminology
❑ NDIS = Network Driver Interface Specification
❑ ODI = Open Datalink Interface
❑ IPX = NetWare Internetworking Protocol
❑ LAN Emulation Software:
❑ LAN Emulation Clients in each host
❑ LAN Emulation Servers
❑ LAN Emulation Configuration server (LECS)
❑ LAN Emulation Server (LES)
❑ Broadcast and unknown server (BUS)

144
LAN Emulation Process
❑ Initialization:
❑ Client gets address of LAN Emulation
❑ Configuration Server (LECS) from its switch,
uses well-known LECS address, or well known
LECS PVC
❑ Client gets Server's address from LECS
❑ Registration:
❑ Client sends a list of its MAC addresses to
Server.
❑ Declares whether it wants ARP requests.

145
LANE Process
❑ Address Resolution:
❑ Client sends ARP request to Server.
❑ Unresolved requests sent to clients, bridges.
❑ Server, Clients, Bridges answer ARP
❑ Client setups a direct connection
❑ Broadcast/Unknown Server (BUS):
❑ Forwards multicast traffic to all members
❑ Clients can also send unicast frames for
unknown addresses

146
ATM Virtual LANs

147
IP over ATM
❑ How many VC’s do we need for n protocols?

❑ Packet encapsulation [RFC1483]
❑ How to find ATM addresses from IP addresses
❑ Address resolution [RFC1577]
❑ How to handle multicast? [MARS, RFC 2022]
❑ How do we go through n subnets on a large ATM
network? [NHRP]
148
IP over ATM: RFCs 1483, 1577

149
RFC 1483: Packet Encapsulation
❑ Question: Given an ATM link between two routers,how

many VC’s should we setup?
❑ Answer 1: One VC per Layer 3 protocol. Null
Encapsulation: No sharing. VC based multiplexing.

150
Encapsulation (RFC 1483): Contd
❑ Answer 2: Share a VC using Logical Link

Control (LLC) Subnetwork Access Protocol
(SNAP). LLC Encapsulation
❑ Protocol Types: 0x0800 = IP, 0x0806 = ARP,
0x809B = AppleTalk, 0x8137 = IPX

151
Address Resolution: ATMARP
❑ IP address: 123.145.134.65
❑ ATM address: 47.0000 1 614 999 2345.00.00.AA....
❑ Issue: IP Address Û ATM Address translation
❑ Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
❑ Inverse ATM ARP: VC Þ IP Address
❑ Solution: ATMARP servers
152
RFC 1577: Classical IP over ATM
❑ ATM stations are divided in to Logical IP Subnets (LIS)

❑ ATMARP server translates IP addresses to ATM
addresses.
❑ Each LIS has an ATMARP server for resolution
❑ IP stations set up a direct VC with the destination or the
router and exchange packets.

153
IP Multicast over ATM
❑ Multicast Address Resolution Servers (MARS)
❑ Internet Group Multicast Protocol (IGMP)
❑ Multicast group members send IGMP join/leave
messages to MARS
❑ Hosts wishing to send a multicast send a
resolution request to MARS
❑ MARS returns the list of addresses
❑ MARS distributes membership update
information to all cluster members

154
Next-Hop Resolution Protocol (NHRP)
❑ Routers assemble packets Þ Slow

❑ NHRP servers can provide ATM address for the
edge device to any IP host
❑ Can avoid routers if both source and destination
are on the same ATM network.
155
Multi-Protocol over ATM (MPOA)
❑ MPOA= LANE + “NHRP+”

❑ Extension of LANE
❑ Uses NHRP to find the shortcut to the next hop
❑ No routing (reassembly) in the ATM network
156
MPOA (contd)
❑ LANE operates at layer 2
❑ RFC 1577 operates at layer 3
❑ MPOA operates at both layer 2 and layer 3 Þ MPOA can
handle non-routable as well as routable protocols
❑ Layer 3 protocol runs directly over ATM Þ Can use ATM
QoS
❑ MPOA uses LANE for its layer 2 forwarding

157
ATM interfaces w/ Internetworking

158

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ISDN, B-ISDN, X.

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Shivkumar Kalyanaraman

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❑ B-ISDN and ATM networks viewed as the convergence

❑ Long 20-byte global addresses used only in signaling

❑ ISDN/B-ISDN vision of an end-to-end integrated digital

❑ Integration (“coupling”) of too many features led to slow

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Shivkumar Kalyanaraman

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Shivkumar Kalyanaraman

❑ Circuit: Pin a path, reserve resources, use TDM based transmission

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Shivkumar Kalyanaraman

❑ Note: the three modular layers were co-specified by the

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Shivkumar Kalyanaraman

❑ Electrical and mechanical specifications of the interface

❑ RS-232-C developed by Electronics Industries

❑ Normal Response Mode (NRM): Response from

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Shivkumar Kalyanaraman

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Shivkumar Kalyanaraman

RR: Receiver Ready

RNR: Receiver Not

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Shivkumar Kalyanaraman

❑ Packet level procedures:

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Shivkumar Kalyanaraman

Redundant signaling and reliability functions at L2 and L3!

❑ GFI = Packet formatting information

❑ Logical Channel Group and Channel Numbers:

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Shivkumar Kalyanaraman

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Shivkumar Kalyanaraman

❑ 3-bit and 7-bit sequence number options possible

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Shivkumar Kalyanaraman

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Shivkumar Kalyanaraman

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Shivkumar Kalyanaraman

* Basic Rate ISDN and Primary Rate ISDN.

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Shivkumar Kalyanaraman

❑ NT1 (Network Termination Type 1): NT1 is a Basic Rate ISDN-only

❑ S/T-interface: S/T-interface is a common way of referring to either

❑ TE1: TE1 (Terminal Equipment Type 1) is ISDN-ready equipment

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Shivkumar Kalyanaraman

❑ R-interface: R-interface is a non-ISDN interface such as

❑ TE2 (Terminal Equipment Type 2): TE2 is equipment

❑ Primary Rate Interface (PRI) ISDN is a user-to-network

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Shivkumar Kalyanaraman

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Shivkumar Kalyanaraman

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Shivkumar Kalyanaraman

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Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Shivkumar Kalyanaraman

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Shivkumar Kalyanaraman

X.25 Message Exchanges Frame Relay Message Exchanges

FR obviously more efficient from a protocol standpoint than X.25,

❑ Frame relay breaks up link-layer into two parts:

❑ Frame relay uses a separate VC for control channel in vs

❑ PVC: Permanent Virtual Circuit

* Similar to X.25 DLCI: Only local significance

❑ UNI = User-network Interface

❑ LAPF control may be used for end-to-end signaling

❑ LAPF is similar to LAPD: Flag, bit stuffing, FCS

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Shivkumar Kalyanaraman

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Shivkumar Kalyanaraman

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Shivkumar Kalyanaraman

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Shivkumar Kalyanaraman

❑ Forward Explicit Congestion Notification (FECN)

❑ Backward Explicit Congestion Notification (BECN)

❑ Set BECN bit in reverse traffic or send Consolidated Link-