INTRODUCTION TO THE WORLD OF THE CELL

The microscope was invented in the 17th century Using a microscope, Robert Hooke discovered cells in 1665: cellulae

Microscopes: windows to the world of the cell

The light microscope enables us to see the overall shape and structure of a cell
Image seen by viewer Eyepiece Ocular lens

Objective lens Specimen Condenser lens Light source

 Electron microscopes were invented in the 1950s They use a beam of electrons instead of light The greater resolving power of electron microscopes allows greater magnification reveals cellular details

 Scanning electron microscope (SEM) Scanning electron micrograph of cilia

 Transmission electron microscope (TEM) Transmission electron micrograph of cilia

The cell theory states:

All organisms are composed of one or more cells. Cells are the basic unit of structure and function in organisms. All cells come only from other cells.

Cells are small so they can exchange materials with their surroundings.

Surface area relative to the volume decreases as size of cell increases. - limits the size of cells

Sizes of living things

Cells
All cells have: Plasma membrane Region where DNA is stored Cytoplasm
2 Types: - Prokaryotic - Eukaryotic

Prokaryotic cells
Domains: Archaebacteria and Eubacteria Kingdom Monera DNA is NOT enclosed in nucleus Generally the smallest, simplest cells No membrane bound organelles

 A prokaryotic cell is enclosed by a plasma membrane and is usually encased in a rigid cell wall The cell wall may be covered by a sticky capsule Inside the cell are its DNA and other parts

Ribosomes Capsule Cell wall Plasma membrane

Prokaryotic flagella

Pili

Nucleoid region (DNA)

Eukaryotic cells
Domain Eukarya Plantae Animalia Protista Fungi Larger and more complex than prokaryotic cells Have a nucleus and other organelles

 An animal cell
Rough endoplasmic reticulum Smooth endoplasmic reticulum Nucleus

Flagellum

Not in most plant cells

Lysosome Centriole
Peroxisome Ribosomes Golgi apparatus Plasma membrane

Microtubule Cytoskeleton Intermediate filament Microfilament

Mitochondrion

 Plant cells have structures that animal cells lacks: Chloroplasts A rigid cell wall composed of cellulose vacuole

Nucleus

Rough endoplasmic reticulum Ribosomes

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum Golgi apparatus Microtubule

Central Not in vacuole

animal Chloroplast cells

Cell wall

Intermediate filament Microfilament

Cytoskeleton

Mitochondrion Peroxisome Plasma membrane

A Tour of the Cell

Eukaryotic cells living factories

Cell Function
Cells are the building blocks of all plants and animals Cells are produced by the division of preexisting cells Cells are the smallest units that perform all vital physiological functions Each cell maintains homeostasis at the cellular level Homeostasis at higher levels reflects combined, coordinated action of many cells

Cell biology

Cytology-the study of the structure and function of cells

The human body contains both somatic and sex cells

The Anatomy of a Representative Cell

A typical cell

Is surrounded by extracellular fluid, which is the interstitial fluid of the tissue

Has an outer boundary called the cell membrane or plasma membrane

A Typical Cell
1. 2. Has structural components - cytoskeleton (made up of protein filaments) Has organelles that perform specific functions in the cell (Mitochondria -produces energy) Has certain active genes to give the cell a specific function (heart cells, liver cells, brain cells, etc) Has the information to perpetuate the whole organism as well as its specific function (Nucleus - DNA)

3.

4.

Organelles
Nonmembranous organelles are not enclosed by a membrane and always in touch with the cytosol Cytoskeleton, microvilli, centrioles, cilia, ribosomes, proteasomes Membranous organelles are surrounded by lipid membranes Endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, peroxisomes, mitochondria

Different Types of Cell Movement (related to structural components)

Internal - movement of proteins, molecules, organelles Determined by cytoskeleton dynamics

External - movement of molecules into or out of the cell Determined by cell membrane function and dynamics

Cell membrane functions include:

Physical isolation Regulation of exchange with the environment Changes in ECF, pH, receptor recognition Structural support

The Cell Membrane

The cell membrane is a phospholipid bilayer with proteins, lipids and carbohydrates.

Membrane Structure
Primarily made up of lipids With lipids With carbohydrates 1. Lipids are the most abundant Membrane called phospholipid bilayer

Outermost portions - hydrophilic Innermost layers - hydrophobic

Permeability The ease with which substances can cross the cell membrane Nothing passes through an impermeable barrier Anything can pass through a freely permeable barrier Cell membranes are selectively permeable Selective permeability is based on size, electrical charges, molecular shape, and lipid solubility. Transport of substances across the membrane can be Passive or Active Active transport requires energy to occur Passive transport does not require energy Diffusion, Osmosis and Active Transport are different types of movement

Diffusion across the Cell Membrane

Cell Motility
The movement of whole cells is made possible through the membrane pliability and the rearrangement of the cytoskeleton and internal components

Cytoskeleton provides strength, flexibility and motility

Microfilaments(6nm) 1. anchor cytockeleton to integral proteins,
2. determine the consistency of the cytoplasm, 3. interacts with myosin to produce movement

Intermediate filaments (7-11 nm)- Protein composition

varies between cell types. 1. Strengthen cell and help maintain shape; 2. Stabilize the position of organelles 3. Stabilize the position of the cell with respect to surrounding cells thru specialized membrane attachments

Microtubules (up to 25nm)

all cells contain microtubules, made up of protein tubulin. Largest cytoskeletal component
Functions: 1. Primary cytoskeletal component 2. Disassembly of microtubules provides a mechanism for changing the shape of the cell and assisting in movement 3. Used to transport other proteins around the cell in association with motor proteins kinesin and dynein 4. Forms spindle apparatus during cell division 5. Form structural cell components such as cilia and centrioles

The Cytoskeleton

The Endoplasmic Reticulum

Site of protein and lipid synthesis

The Golgi Apparatus

Forms secretory vesicles Forms new membrane components

Functions of the Golgi Apparatus

Lysosomes and Peroxisomes

Lysosomes are Filled with digestive enzymes Responsible for autolysis of injured cells Peroxisomes Carry enzymes that neutralize toxins

Lysosome Functions

Mitochondria

Responsible for ATP production through aerobic respiration

Matrix = fluid contents of mitochondria

Cristae = folds in inner membrane

The nucleus is the center of cellular operations

Surrounded by a nuclear envelope Perinuclear space Communicates with cytoplasm through nuclear pores

The Nucleus

Contents of the nucleus

A supportive nuclear matrix One or more nucleoli Chromosomes DNA bound to histones Chromatin

Chromosome Structure

The genetic code

The cells information storage system Triplet code A gene contains all the triplets needed to code for a specific polypeptide

Gene activation and protein synthesis

Gene activation initiates with RNA polymerase binding to the gene Transcription is the formation of mRNA from DNA mRNA carries instructions from the nucleus to the cytoplasm

The Cell Life Cycle

DNA Replication

Early Prophase Mitosis Begins

Duplicated chromosomes begin to condense Nucleoli dissappear
centrosome (with centriole pairs)

Late Prophase
One centriole pair of the centrosome is moved toward opposite pole of spindle Mitotic spindle forms Spindle fibers attach to sister chromatids Nuclear envelope starts to break up kinetochore
Mitotic spindle

centriole

Metaphase

All chromosomes are lined up at the metaphase plate (equator) Chromosomes are maximally condensed

Anaphase
Sister chromatids are pulled apart at the centromere Once separated, each chromatid is a chromosome Each identical chromosome moves toward opposite poles

Telophase

Chromosomes uncoil, return to chromatin Two nuclear membranes form, one around each set of new chromosomes Nucleoli reappear

INTERPHASE Centrosomes (with centriole pairs) Chromatin Early mitotic spindle

PROPHASE Centrosome Fragments of nuclear envelope Kinetochore

Nucleolus Nuclear envelope

Plasma membrane

Chromosome, consisting of two sister chromatids

Centromere

Spindle microtubules

METAPHASE Metaphase plate

ANAPHASE

TELOPHASE AND CYTOKINESIS Cleavage furrow Nucleolus forming

Spindle

Daughter chromosomes

Nuclear envelope forming

Two Mechanisms of Cytokinesis

Cytokinesis is the division of the cytoplasm In animals, cytokinesis occurs by cleavage This process pinches the cell apart

Cleavage furrow

Cleavage furrow

Contracting ring of microfilaments

Daughter cells

 In plants, a membranous cell plate splits the cell in two

Cell plate forming

Wall of parent cell

Daughter nucleus

Results of Mitosis

Two daughter nuclei Each with same chromosome number as parent cell Each cell is genetically identical

Review of the functions of mitosis:

Multicellular organisms Growth Cell replacement Some protistans, fungi, plants, animals Asexual reproduction

 When the cell cycle operates normally, mitotic cell division functions in: Growth (seen here in an onion root)

 Cell replacement (seen here in skin)

Dead cells

Epidermis, the outer layer of the skin

Dividing cells Dermis

 Asexual reproduction (seen here in a hydra)

Budding of a new hydra

Growth factors signal the cell cycle control system

Proteins within the cell control the cell cycle growth factors deliver signals that determine whether the cell will go through a complete cycle and divide
G1 checkpoint

Control system

M checkpoint

G2 checkpoint

 The binding of growth factors to specific receptors on the plasma membrane is usually necessary for cell division
Growth factor Plasma membrane

Receptor protein Signal transduction pathway

Relay proteins

G1 checkpoint

Cell cycle control system

Cancer: cells growing out of control

Cancer cells have abnormal cell cycles They divide excessively and can form abnormal masses called tumors Cancer cells ignore the control signals of normal cells - ignore STOP signals Radiation and chemotherapy are effective as cancer treatments because they interfere with cell division

 Malignant tumors can invade other tissues and may lead to death

Lymph vessels Tumor

Glandular tissue Metastasis 1 A tumor grows from a single cancer cell. 2 Cancer cells invade neighboring tissue. 3 Cancer cells spread through lymph and blood vessels to other parts of the body.

cell division
Cell division is the reproduction of cells Apoptosis is the genetically controlled death of cells Mitosis is the nuclear division of somatic cells Meiosis produces sex cells

Differentiation
Process of specialization Results from inactivation of particular genes Produces populations of cells with limited capabilities Differentiated cells form tissues

Quiz
1. Name the stages of the cell cycle in order of occurrence. 2. What happens in the S stage of interphase? 3. What are the two main stages of cell division in the cell cycle? 4. What are the main stages of mitosis (M phase) of the cell cycle? 5. What mechanism do animal cells use in cytokinesis? 6. Why is cancer considered a disease of the cell cycle?

QUIZ:
I. FILL IN THE BLANK 1. The first person to describe microscopic organisms and living cells was __________________________. 2. Short, hair-like organelles that can move and may cover a unicellular organism or line the respiratory tract are called __________________________. 3. Some ribosomes are free in the cytoplasm, while others line the membrane of the _________________________. 4. Everything between the cell membrane and the nucleus is the cell's ____________________. 5. All cells, from all organisms, are surrounded by a _________________________. 6. The organelle that stores DNA and synthesizes RNA ______________________. 7. The organelle that processes and packages substances produced by the cell ___________________________. 8. The _______________________is the control center of the cell. 9. The DNA in the form of a long strand is called _____________________. 10. Scientist call the modern view of the cell membrane structure the _________________________________.

QUIZ CONT
11. During cell division, _________________________ strands coil and condense into thick structures called 12._______________________. 13. Organisms whose cells never contain a membrane bound nucleus are called _______________________. 14. Suspended in the cell's cytosol are tiny _______________________. 15. When a cell prepares to reproduce the _______________________ disappears. 16. In eukaryotic cells, most organelles are surrounded by a _____________________. 17. Organisms whose cells always or usually contain a nucleus or nuclei are called __________________18. Unicellular organisms such as bacteria and their relatives are ___________________________. 19. Where are poisons and waste detoxified in a cell? ______________________20. A cell synthesizes protein by using organelles called _____________________.