UDPUser Datagram Protocol

An unreliable, connectionless transport layer protocol UDP format. See picture Two additional functions beyond IP:
Demultiplexing: deliver to different upper layer entities such as DNS, RTP, SNMP based on the destination port # in the header. i.e., UDP can support multiple applications in the same end systems. (Optionally) check the integrity of entire UDP. (recall IP only checks the integrity of IP header.)
If source does not want to compute checksum, fill checksum with all 0s. If compute checksum and the checksum happens to be 0s, then fill all 1s. UDP checksum computation is similar to IP checksum, with two more:
Add extra 0s to entire datagram if not multiple of 16 bits. Add pseudoheader to the beginning of datagram. UDP pseudoheader
1

UDP datagram

0 Source Port UDP Length

16 Destination Port UDP Checksum Data

31

Back to UDPUser Datagram Protocol

2
Figure 8.16

Back to UDPUser Datagram Protocol

UDP pseudoheader
0 8 16 Source IP Address Destination IP Address 00000000 Protocol = 17 UDP Length 31

1.Pseudoheader is to ensure that the datagram has indeed reached the correct destination host and port. 2. The padding of 0s and pseudoheader is only for the computation of checksum and not be transmitted.
3
Figure 8.17

TCPtransmission control protocol

TCP functionality
Provides connection-oriented, reliable, in-sequence, byte-stream service Provides a logical full-duplex (two way) connection Provides flow-control by advertised window. Provides congestion control by congestion window. Support multiple applications in the same end systems.

TCP establishes connection by setting up variables that are used in two peer TCP entities. Most important variables are initial sequence numbers. TCP uses Selective Repeat ARQ. TCP terminates each direction of connection independently, allowing data to continue flowing in one direction after closing the other direction. TCP does not keep messages boundaries and treats data as byte stream. e.g, when source sends out two chunks of data with length 400 and 600 bytes, the receiver may receive data in chunks of 300, 400, and 300 bytes, or 100 and 900 bytes.

TCP operations
1. TCP delivers byte stream.See picture 2. TCP deals with old packets from old connections by several methods. See picture 3. TCP uses sliding-window to implement reliable transfer of byte stream. See picture 4. TCP uses advertised window for flow control. 5. Adaptive timer:
1. 2. 3. tout = tRTT+4dRTT , tRTT(new) = tRTT(old) +(1-)n , dRTT(new)=dRTT(old) + (1-)(n-tRTT) Where n is the time from transmitting a segment until receiving its ACK. , are in 0 to 1 with being 7/8 and being typically. tRTT is mean roundtrip-time, dRTT is average of deviation.

6. TCP uses congestion window for congestion control. See picture

5

TCP byte stream

Application byte stream Application

byte stream

segments Transmitter Send buffer Receive buffer Receiver

ACKs

6
Figure 8.18

An old segment could not be distinguished from current ones

Host A Host B

Delayed segment with Seq_no = n+2 will be accepted

Question: How does TCP prevent old packets of old connections?

Using long (32 bit) sequence number Random initial sequence number

-- set a timer at the end of a connection to clear all lost packets from this connection.
As a result, that an old packet from an old connection conflicts with packets in current connection is very low!!

Back to TCP operations

7
Figure 8.23

TCP uses Selective-Repeat ARQ

Transmitter Send Window ...
Octets transmitted Slast and ACKed

Receiver Receive Window Slast+WS1 ... Rlast Rlast+WR+1

...

Rnext

Rnew

Srecent

Slast+WA-1

Advertised window Rlast highest-numbered octet not yet read Slast oldest unacknowledged octet by the application Srecent highest-numbered transmitted octet Rnext next expected octet Slast+WA-1 highest-numbered octet that Rnew highest numbered octet received can be transmitted correctly Slast+WS-1 highest-numbered octet that Rlast+WR-1 highest-numbered octet that can be accepted from the application can be accommodated in receive buffer

Note: 1. Rnew highest bytes received correctly, which are out-of sequence bytes. 2. Advertised window WA: Srecent Slast WA =WR ( Rnew Rlast)

Back to TCP operations

8
Figure 8.19

Dynamics of TCP congestion window

20 Congestion avoidance Congestion occurs

15
Congestion window 10 Slow start

Threshold

0 Round-trip times

Back to TCP operations

9
Figure 7.63

TCP protocol
TCP segment See Segment format
TCP pseudoheader. See pseudoheader

TCP connection establishment. See establishment

Client-server application See socket

TCP Data transfer

Sliding window with window sliding on byte basis Flow control and piggybacking See flow control

TCP connection termination

After receiving ACK for previous data, but no more data to send, the TCP will terminate the connection in its direction by issuing an FIN segment. Graceful termination

TCP state transition diagram

10

Back to TCP protocol

0 4 10
Source Port

TCP segment format

16 24
Destination Port Sequence Number Acknowledgement Number

31

Header Length

Reserved Checksum

U A P R S F R C S S Y I GKH T N N

(Advertised) Window Size Urgent Pointer

Options Data

Padding

1.SYN: request to set a connection. 2. RST: tell the receiver to abort the connection. 3. FIN: tell receiver this is the final segment, no more data, i.e, close the connection in this direction 4. ACK: tell the receiver (or sender) that the value is the field of acknowledgment number is valid 5. PSH: tell the receiving TCP entity to pass the data to the application immediately. 6. URG: tell the receiver that the Urgent Pointer is valid. Urgent Pointer: this pointer added to the sequence number points to the last byte of the Urgent Data, (the data that needs immediately delivery).
11

Figure 8.20

Back to TCP protocol TCP pseudoheader

0 8 16 Source IP Address Destination IP Address 00000000 Protocol = 6 TCP Segment Length 31

The padding of 0s and pseudoheader is only used in computation of checksum but not be transmitted, as in UDP checksum.

12
Figure 8.21

Back to TCP protocol

Host A Host B

1. 2.

Random initial SN Initial SNs in two directions are different 3. Initial SNs for two connections are different. 4. It should be clear here that what setting up connection means: both A and B know that they will exchange data, and go into ready state to send and receive data. Most important is that they agree upon the initial SNs.

Three-way handshake to set up connection

13
Figure 8.22

Back to TCP protocol

Host A (Client) Host B (Server) socket bind listen accept (blocks)

socket connect (blocks)

connect returns write read (blocks)

accept returns read (blocks) read returns

write read (blocks)

read returns
14
Figure 8.24

Host A

TCP window flow control

Host B

t0

t1

t2

t3

t4

Back to TCP protocol

15
Figure 8.25

Back to TCP protocol

TCP graceful termination

Host A Host B

Question: is termination easier than establishment? Or to say, is it possible that a connection is closed when both of two parties confirm with each other?

No, Saying goodbye is hard to do. Famous blue-red armies problem.

16
Figure 8.27

Thick lines: normal client states Dashed lines: normal server states

CLOSED applic. close

passive open, create TCB

LISTEN applic. close or timeout, delete TCB

SYN_RCVD
applic. close, send FIN

receive SYN, send ACK

SYN_SENT

ESTABLISHED

CLOSE_WAIT FIN_WAIT_1 CLOSING

LAST_ACK

FIN_WAIT_2

TIME_WAIT

2MSL timeout delete TCB

17
Figure 8.28

Back to TCP protocol

Sequence number wraparound and timestamps Original TCP specification for MSL (Maximum Segment Lifetime) is 2 minutes. How long will it take to wrap around 32 bit sequence number when 232=4,294,967,296 bytes have been sent (maximum window size=231)
T-1 line, (2328)/(1.544 106) = 6 hours T-3 line, (2328)/(45 106) = 12 minutes OC-48 line, (2328)/(2.4 109) = 14 seconds !!!

When sequence number wrap around, the wraparounded sequence number will confuse with previous sequence number. Solution: optional timestamp field (32 bits) in TCP header, thus, 232232=264 is big enough right now.
18

Internet routing protocols

Autonomous system (AS)
A set of routers or networks technically administrated by a single organization. No restriction that an AS must run a single routing protocol Only requirement is that from outside, an AS presents a consistent picture of which ASs are reachable through it.

Three types of ASs:

Stub AS: has only a single connection to outside. Multihomed AS: has multiple connections to outside, but refuses to carry out transit traffic Transit AS: multiple connections to outside and carry transit traffic.

ASs need to be assigned globally unique AS number (ASN)

19

Classification of Internet routing protocols

IGP (Interior Gateway Protocol):
For routers to communicate within an AS and relies on IP address to construct paths. Provides a map of a county dealing with how to reach each building. RIP (Routing Information Protocol): distance vector OSPF (Open Shortest Path First): link state

EGP (Exterior Gateway Protocol):

For routers to communicate among different ASs and relies on AS numbers to construct AS paths. Provides a map of a country, connecting each county. BGP (Border Gateway Protocol): (distance) path vector
20

RIPRouting Information Protocol

Distance vector On top of UDP with port #520 Metric is number of hops
Maximum number of hops is 15, 16 stands for infinity Using split-horizon with poisoned reverse. May speed up convergence by triggered updates.

Routers exchange distance vector every 30 seconds

If a router does not receive distance vector from its neighbor X within 180 seconds, the link to X is considered broken and the router sets the cost to X is 16 (infinity).

RIP-2 contains more information: subnet mask, next hop, routing domain, authentication, CIDR
21

RIP message format

0
Command

8
Version Address Family Identifier

16
Zero Zero Zero Zero Metric

31

IP Address

...

1. Command: 1: request other routers to send routing information 2: a response containing its routing information 2. Version: 1 or 2 3. Up to 25 routing information message 3.1 Family identifier: only 2 for IP address 3.2 IP address: can be a host address or a network address 3.3 Metric: 115. 16 indicates infinity Problems of RIP: not scalable, slow convergence, counting-to-infinity 22 therefore replaced By OSPF in 1979. Figure 8.32

Internet multicast
A packet is to be sent to multiple hosts with the same multicast address Class D multicast addresses: e.g., 224.0.0.1 all systems on a LAN 224.0.0.2 all routers on a LAN 224.0.0.5 all OSPF routers on a LAN 224.0.0.6 all designated OSPF routers on a LAN It is not efficient to implement multicast by unicast, i.e., the source sends a separate copy for every destination. Reverse-path broadcasting / multicasting, each packet is transmitted once per link IGMP (Internet Group Management Protocol): allow a user to join a multicast group and let routers collect multicast group membership information.

23

Multicasting
G1
1 2 3

G1 7 2
3 2 1 8 4 3 4 1 5 2

2 4
1

5
4

G1
G1

1 1 3 5 4

2
1 2 1

3
3

6 3
4

G2

G3

G3

Source S sends packets to multicast group G1 24

 Multicast routing useful when a source wants to transmit its packets to several destinations simultaneously Relying on unicast routing by transmitting each copy of packet separately works, but can be very inefficient if number of destinations is large Typical applications is multi-party conferencing over the Internet Example: Multicast Backbone (MBONE) uses reverse path multicasting
25

Multicast Routing

Reverse-Path Broadcasting (RPB)

Fact: Set of shortest paths to the source node S forms a tree that spans the network Approach: Follow paths in reverse direction Assume each router knows current shortest path to S Upon receipt of a multicast packet, router records the packets source address and the port it arrives on If shortest path to source is through same port (parent port), router forwards the packet to all other ports Else, drops the packet Loops are suppressed; each packet forwarded by a router exactly once Implicitly assume shortest path to source S is same as shortest path from source If paths asymmetric, need to use link state info to compute shortest paths from S
26

Example: Shortest Paths from S

G1
1
2 3

G1 7 2
3 4 1 5 2

2 4
1 1

5
4

3 1

G1 G1

8
4

1 3
2
1

5 4 2 4 3 1

1 2

6 3
4

3
3

G2

G3

G3

Spanning tree of shortest paths to node S and parent 27 ports are shown in blue

Example: S sends a packet

G1
2

3 1 5 2

G1
1
4

7 2
3

2 4
1 1

5
4

3 1

G1 G1

8
4

1 3
2
1

5 4 2 4 3 1

1 2

6 3
4

3
3

G2

G3

G3

S sends a packet to node 1 Node 1 forwards to all ports, except parent port

28

Example: Hop 1 nodes broadcast

G1
2

3 1 5 2

G1
1
4

7 2
3

2 4
1 1

5
4

3 1

G1 G1

8
4

1 3
2
1

5 4 2 4 3 1

1 2

6 3
4

3
3

G2

G3

G3

Nodes 2, 3, 4, and 5 broadcast, except on parent ports 29 All nodes, not only G1, receive packets

Example: Broadcast continues

G1
1
2 3

G1 7 2
3 4 1 5 2

2 4
1 1

5
4

3 1

G1 G1

8
4

1 3
2
1

5 4 2 4 3 1

1 2

6 3
4

3
3

G2

G3

G3

Truncated RPB (TRPB): Leaf routers do not broadcast if none of its attached hosts belong to packets multicast group 30

Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP)

Internet Group Management Protocol:
Host can join a multicast group by sending an IGMP message to its router

Each multicast router periodically sends an IGMP query message to check whether there are hosts belonging to multicast groups
Hosts respond with list of multicast groups they belong to Hosts randomize response time; cancel response if other hosts reply with same membership

Routers determine which multicast groups are associated with a certain port Routers only forward packets on ports that have hosts belonging to the multicast group

31

Multicast programming
2.1 Multicast addresses.
224.0.0.0---247.255.255.255

2.2 Levels of conformance.

0: no, 1: sending, 2: receiving

2.3 Sending Multicast Datagrams.

Open UDP socket, and send to multicast address TTL
0 Restricted to the same host. 1 Restricted to the same subnet. <32 Restricted to the same site, organization or department. <64 Restricted to the same region. <128 Restricted to the same continent. <255 Unrestricted in scope. Global.

2.4 Receiving Multicast Datagrams.

Joining multicast group Drop multicast group

Mapping of IP Multicast Addresses to Ethernet/FDDI addresses.

32

Multicast functions
int getsockopt(int s, int level, int optname, void* optval, int* optlen); int setsockopt(int s, int level, int optname, const void* optval, int optlen); setsockopt() getsockopt()
IP_MULTICAST_LOOP IP_MULTICAST_TTL IP_MULTICAST_IF IP_ADD_MEMBERSHIP yes IP_DROP_MEMBERSHIP yes yes yes yes no no yes yes yes

http://www.ibiblio.org/pub/Linux/docs/HOWTO/o ther-formats/html_single/MulticastHOWTO.html#ss2.1
33

IPv6 (IPng): IPv4 is very successful but the victim of its own success.

Longer address field:

128 bits can support up to 3.4 x 1038 hosts

Simplified header format:

Simpler format to speed up processing of each header All fields are of fixed size IPv4 vs IPv6 fields:
Same: Version Dropped: Header length, ID/flags/frag offset, header checksum Replaced: Datagram length by Payload length Protocol type by Next header TTL by Hop limit TOS by traffic class New: Flow label 34

 Flexible support for options: more efficient and flexible options encoded in optional extension headers Flow label capability: flow label to identify a packet flow that requires a certain QoS Security: built-in authentication and confidentiality Large packets: supports payloads that are longer than 64 K bytes, called jumbo payloads. Fragmentation at source only: source should check the minimum MTU along the path No checksum field: removed to reduce packet 35 processing time in a router

Other IPv6 Features

IPv6 Header Format

0 4 12 16 24 31

Version

Traffic Class
Payload Length

Flow Label
Next Header Hop Limit

Source Address

Destination Address

Version field same size, same location Traffic class to support differentiated services Flow: sequence of packets from particular source to particular 36 destination for which source requires special handling

IPv6 Header Format

0 4 12 16 24 31

Version

Traffic Class
Payload Length

Flow Label
Next Header Hop Limit

Source Address

Destination Address

Payload length: length of data excluding header, up to 65535 B Next header: type of extension header that follows basic header Hop limit: # hops packet can travel before being dropped by a router
37

 Address Categories

IPv6 Addressing

Unicast: single network interface Multicast: group of network interfaces, typically at different locations. Packet sent to all. Anycast: group of network interfaces. Packet sent to only one interface in group, e.g. nearest.

Hexadecimal notation
Groups of 16 bits represented by 4 hex digits Separated by colons
4BF5:AA12:0216:FEBC:BA5F:039A:BE9A:2176

Shortened forms:
4BF5:0000:0000:0000:BA5F:039A:000A:2176 To 4BF5:0:0:0:BA5F:39A:A:2176 To 4BF5::BA5F:39A:A:2176

Mixed notation:
::FFFF:128.155.12.198

38

Example

39

Address Types based on Prefixes

Binary prefix 0000 0000 0000 0001 0000 001 Types Reserved Unassigned ISO network addresses Percentage of address space 0.39 0.39 0.78

0000 010
0000 011 0000 1 0001 001 010 011 100 101 110 1110

IPX network addresses

Unassigned Unassigned Unassigned Unassigned Provider-based unicast addresses Unassigned Geographic-based unicast addresses Unassigned Unassigned Unassigned

0.78
0.78 3.12 6.25 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5 6.25

1111 0
1111 10 1111 110 1111 1110 0 1111 1110 10 1111 1110 11

Unassigned
Unassigned Unassigned Unassigned Link local use addresses Site local use addresses

3.12
1.56 0.78 0.2 0.098 0.098

40

Special Purpose Addresses

n bits 010 Registry ID m bits Provider ID o bits Subscriber ID p bits Subnet ID (125-m-n-o-p) bits Interface ID

Provider-based Addresses: 010 prefix Assigned by providers to their customers Hierarchical structure promotes aggregation Registry ID: ARIN, RIPE, APNIC ISP Subscriber ID: subnet ID & interface ID Local Addresses: do not connect to global Internet Link-local: for single link Site-local: for single site Designed to facilitate transition to connection to Internet
41

Special Purpose Addresses

Unspecified Address: 0::0
Used by source station to learn own address

Loopback Address: ::1 IPv4-compatible addresses: 96 0s + IPv4

For tunneling by IPv6 routers connected to IPv4 networks ::135.150.10.247

IP-mapped addresses: 80 0s + 16 1s + IPv4

Denote IPv4 hosts & routers that do not support IPv6 42

Migration from IPv4 to IPv6

Gradual transition from IPv4 to IPv6 Dual IP stacks: routers run IPv4 & IPv6
Type field used to direct packet to IP version

IPv6 islands can tunnel across IPv4 networks

Encapsulate user packet insider IPv4 packet Tunnel endpoint at source host, intermediate router, or destination host Tunneling can be recursive

43

Migration from IPv4 to IPv6

Source Tunnel head-end Tunnel Tunnel tail-end Destination

(a) IPv6 network

IPv6 header IPv4 network

IPv4 header

IPv6 network

Source Link

Destination

(b) IPv6 network IPv6 network 44

DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) A host broadcasts a DHCP discovery message in its physical network for an IP address. Server(s) reply with DHCP offer message The host selects one IP address and broadcasts a DHCP request message including the IP address The selected server allocates the IP address and sends back a DHCP ACK message with a lease time T, two thresholds T1 (=0.5T), T2(=0.875T)
when T1 expires, the host asks the server for extension. If T2 expire, the host broadcasts DHCP request to any server on the network If T expires, the host relinquishes the IP address and reapply from scratch.
45

Mobile IP
Mobile host, home agent, foreign agent If mobile host is currently at the same network with HA (home agent), the packet to the mobile host will be broadcast to it. If mobile host moves to another network, the mobile host will register itself with FA (foreign agent) and gets a new care-of IP address. Then packet is sent to HA, which will forward to the FA and FA continues to forward to destination.
46

Deliver packets to mobile host through home agent and foreign agent
Foreign network Home network Foreign agent 2 Home agent Internet 3 1 Correspondent host

Mobile host

47
Figure 8.29