Mlcrowave SysLems

Microwave Systems
W passive and active microwave components
W radar & communication systems
W important component in any radar or communication
system is the antenna
Antenna
W metallic structures designed or radiating and
receiing electromagnetic energy
W acts as a transitional structure between the
guiding deice and the ree space
W 1hat part o a transmitting or receiing system
that is designed to radiate or receie
electromagnetic waes`
3
ow an Antenna radiates
W A conducting wire radiates mainly because o time-
arying current or an acceleration o charge
W I there is no motion o charges in a wire, no
radiation takes place, since no low o current
occurs.
W Radiation will not occur een i charges are moing
with uniorm elocity along a straight wire
charges moing with uniorm elocity along a cured or
bent wire will produce radiation. I the charge is
oscillating with time, then radiation occurs een along a
straight wire
4
ow an Antenna radiates
5
ow an Antenna radiates
\hen a sinusoidal oltage is applied across the
transmission line, an electric ield is created which is
sinusoidal in nature and this results in the creation o
electric lines o orce which are tangential to the electric
ield. 1he magnitude o the electric ield is indicated by
the bunching o the electric lines o orce. 1he ree
electrons on the conductors are orcibly displaced by
the electric lines o orce and the moement o these
charges causes the low o current which in turn leads
to the creation o a magnetic ield.
6
ow an Antenna radiates
Due to the time arying electric and magnetic ields,
electromagnetic waes are created and these trael
between the conductors. As these waes approach open
space, ree space waes are ormed by connecting the
open ends o the electric lines. Since the sinusoidal
source continuously creates the electric disturbance,
electromagnetic waes are created continuously and
these trael through the transmission line, through the
antenna and are radiated into the ree space. Inside the
transmission line and the antenna, the electromagnetic
waes are sustained due to the charges, but as soon as
they enter the ree space, they orm closed loops and
are radiated.
7
-ear and lar lleld 8eglons
ield patterns, associated with an antenna, change with
distance and are associated with two types o energy: -
radiating energy and reactie energy
8
Reactie near-ield region
W the reactie ield dominates
W 1he reactie energy oscillates towards and away
rom the antenna, thus appearing as reactance.
W energy is only stored and no energy is dissipated.
W outermost boundary or this region is at a distance
R
1
~ 0.62 ,D
3
,` ,
1,2
R
1
is the distance rom the antenna surace
D is the largest dimension o the antenna
` is the waelength.
9
Radiating near-ield region
W also called lresnel region
W the region which lies between the reactie near-
ield region and the ar ield region.
W Reactie ields are smaller in this ield as compared
to the reactie near-ield region and the radiation
ields dominate.
W the angular ield distribution is a unction o the
distance rom the antenna.
W Lies between R
1
~ 0.62 ,D
3
,` ,
1,2
& R
2
~ 2 ,D
2
,`
,
10
lar-ield region
W lraunhoer region
W Region beyond R
2
~ 2 ,D
2
,` ,
W the reactie ields are absent and only the
radiation ields exist.
W 1he angular ield distribution is not dependent
on the distance rom the antenna
W the power density aries as the inerse square o
the radial distance
11
Antenna Parameters
W Radiation Pattern
W Directiity
W Input impedance
W VS\R
W Return Loss
W Radiation eiciency
W Gain
W Beamwidth
W Bandwidth
12
Radiation Pattern
W a plot o the ar-ield radiation properties o an antenna as a
unction o the spatial co-ordinates which are speciied by the
eleation angle 0 and the azimuth angle .
W 2 or 3D representation o radiated energy
W 1race o receied power - power pattern
W Variation o lield - ield pattern
L-plane pattern - Plane containing electric ield ector &
the direction o max. radiation
-plane pattern - Plane containing magnetic ield ector &
the direction o max. radiation
W Isotropic radiator - radiates equally in all directions
W Directional antenna - eectie 1x,Rx in a particular direction
13
Radiation Pattern
14
8adlaLlon aLLern
W ain , ajor Lobe: 1his is the radiation lobe containing the
direction o maximum radiation.
W inor Lobe: All the lobes other then the main lobe are called the
minor lobes. 1hese lobes represent the radiation in undesired
directions. 1he leel o minor lobes is usually expressed as a
ratio o the power density in the lobe in question to that o the
major lobe. 1his ratio is called as the side lobe leel ,expressed in
decibels,. Back Lobe: 1his is the minor lobe diametrically
opposite the main lobe.
W Side Lobes: 1hese are the minor lobes adjacent to the main lobe
and are separated by arious nulls. Side lobes are generally the
largest among the minor lobes.
W PB\: 1he hal power beamwidth ,PB\, can be deined as
the angle subtended by the hal power points o the main lobe.
15
Radiation Power Density
W Power density \
0
associated with em ields in
an antenna at ar ield - Radiation density
W Aerage power radiated P
rad
~ 4xr
2
\
0
W 1he radiation intensity U
i
~ r
2
\
rad
. J
. J
2
0
*
*
4
Re
2
1
Re
2
1
r
P
W
H E P P
H E S
H E S
rad
S
av rad
av
x
=
- = =
- =
- =

16
Directiity
W the ratio o the radiation intensity in a gien direction
rom the antenna to the radiation intensity aeraged
oer all directions
W the directiity o a non-isotropic source is equal to the
ratio o its radiation intensity in a gien direction, oer
that o an isotropic source
W the direction o the maximum radiation intensity is
implied and the maximum directiity
rad i
P
U
U
U
D
x 4
= =
rad i
P
U
U
U
D
max max
max
4x
= =
17
18
Input Impedance
W the impedance presented by an antenna at its terminals or the
ratio o the oltage to the current at the pair o terminals or the
ratio o the appropriate components o the electric to magnetic
ields at a point
W imaginary part represents the power stored in the near ield o
the antenna
W 1he resistie part consists o two components
the radiation resistance R
r
and the loss resistance R
L
.
1he power associated with the radiation resistance is the
power actually radiated by the antenna
the power dissipated in the loss resistance is lost as heat in
the antenna itsel due to dielectric or conducting losses.
in in in
X f R Z =
19
VS\R
W the condition or matching is not satisied -
Voltage Standing \ae Ratio ,VS\R,.
W aximum power transer can take place only
when the impedance o the antenna ,Z
in
, is
matched to that o the transmitter ,Z
S
,
S in
S in
Z Z
Z Z

= I
I
I
= =
1
1
min
max
'
'
S
20
Return Loss
W the amount o power that is lost` to the load
and does not return as a relection
W I ~ 0 RL ~ ~ which means no power
would be relected back
W I ~ 1 RL ~ 0, all incident power is relected.
W lor practical applications, a VS\R o 2 is
acceptable, since this corresponds to a RL o
-9.54 dB.
I =
10
log 20 RL
21
Antenna Liciency
W Accounts or the losses
Relections because o mismatch between the
transmitter and the antenna
I
2
R losses ,conduction and dielectric,
W total antenna eiciency
)
L r
r
cd
cd cd r d c r
R R
R
e
e e e e e e e

=
I = = =
2
0
1
22
Antenna Gain
W ABSOLU1L GAIN in a gien direction is the ratio
o the radiation intensity in a gien direction to the
radiation intensity that would be obtained i the
power accepted by the antenna were an isotropic
radiator
W RLLA1IVL GAIN - ratio o the power gain in a
gien direction to the power gain o a reerence
antenna in the reerenced direction, both with same
input power
23
Antenna Gain
D e
P
U
e G
P e P
P
U
cd
rad
i
cd
in cd rad
in
i
= =
=
= =
x
x x
4
4 4
power total i,p
y intensit Radiation
Gain
24
25
26
27
8adlaLlon from lnflnlLeslmal
ulpole
ulpole
W lnflnlLeslmal small (lA2$% herLlzlan dlpole
W Small dlpole(2$lA 2$%
W llnlLe lengLh dlpole
l/2
r
z
x
7

0
) ' ( a :
:
=
' '
0 ) ' , ' , ' (
) ' , ' , ' (
) ' , ' , ' (
) , , (
' ) ' , ' , ' (
4
) , , (
0
d: dl
const r R
: y x
a : y x e
: y x
: y x
dl
R
e
: y x e : y x A
:
fKR
=
= =
=
=

dipole l inintesma
coordinate source
point n obseratio
x

29
0
sin
4
sin
cos
4
cos
sin
sin sin cos cos cos
cos sin sin cos sin
0
0
=
= =
= =

7
7
x

7
7
x

7

7 7 7
7 7 7
A
r
e l
A A
r
e l
A A
A
A
A
A
A
A
fKr
fKr
:
: r
:
y
x r
0 cos

=
2 /
2 /
0
'
4
) , , (
l
l
fKr
:
d: e
r

a : y x A
x

0
0
= - \ =
= - \ =
- \ = =
7 7

A H
A H
A H B
r r
30
. J
0
) (
1 1
1
4
sin
1
1
2
cos
1
1
1
4
sin
0
0
2
0
2
0
0
=

=
- \ =

=
=
=

7
x
7

x
7

1
x
7
E
e
Kr
fkr r
l
f E
e
fkr
r
l
E
H
f
E
e
fkr r
l fK
H
H
H
fKr
fKr
r
fKr
r
1

7
= =

H
E
r
r
r
ield tic Llectrosta
ield Induction
ield distant or Radiation
3
2
1
1
1
31
ower uenslLy 8adlaLlon 8eslsLance
. J . J
. J
)
)

=
=
- = - =
2 3 2
2
0
3 2
2
0
* *
* *
1
1
16
sin cos
1
1
sin
8
Re
2
1
Re
2
1
Re
2
1
Kr r
l K
f W
Kr
f
r
l
W
H E a H E a
H a E a E a H E W
r
r r
r r
x
7 7

7
2

7
7 7
7 7
32
)
)

'
+

'

'
+

'

= =
= =

=
=
= =
2 2
x
x

2
x

2
x

7 7
7 7
x x
x x
7 7
l l
r
r
r r
r r r
S
R
R
l
P
r
Kr
f
l
d d r a W
d d r a W a W a dS W P
2
2
2
2
0
2
0
3
2
0
2
2
0 0
2
2
0 0
80
3
2
2
1
3
1
1
3
sin .
sin .
, o ues l larger a or
Total Power
radiated
L r
r
in
out
L
R R
R
P
P
R
l

= =
=
'
+

'

2
Liciency
resistance Load
2
325 . 1
33
Radiation rom elemental dipole
34
Monopole antenna
W onopole ormed by replacing one hal o a dipole
antenna with a ground plane at rt. Angles with the
remaining hal.
W I the ground plane is large monopole behaes exactly
like a dipole.
W lor a quarter-wae monopole the impedance is hal o
that o a hal-wae dipole Z
in
~ 36.5
35
icrostrip Antenna
36
aLch
SubsLraLe
Subs
LraL
e
Cround plane
leed polnL
(a% robe feed
(b% MlcrosLrlp feed
aLch
Cround plane
SubsLraLe MlcrosLrlp feed
L
aLch
x
?
lrlnglng elecLrlc flelds LhaL ls responslble for radlaLlon along
wlLh Lhe equlvalenL magneLlc surface (,% currenLs
37
38
39
40
41
(f% A reslsLor aL LemperaLure @ (% An anLenna ln an anecholc chamber aL LemperaLure
@ (n% An anLenna vlewlng a unlform sky background aL LemperaLure @
,
-aLural and manmade sources of background nolse
the noise power rom an arbitrary white noise source was
represented as an equialent noise temperature, we deine the
background noise temperature,1
B
, as the equialent temperature o a
resistor required to produce the same noise power as the actual
enironment seen by the antenna.
ackground nolse LemperaLure of sky versus frequency 7 ls elevaLlon angle measured from horlzon uaLa
ls for sea level wlLh surface LemperaLure of S and surface waLer vapor denslLy of 7 gm$m
3

hen the antenna beamwidth is broad enough that diIIerent

parts oI the antenna pattern see diIIerent background
temperatures, the eIIective brightness temperature seen by the
antenna can be Iound by weighting the spatial distribution oI
background temperature by the pattern Iunction oI the
antenna.
-793088902507,9:70
AnLenna -olse C$@
W I a receiing antenna has dissipatie loss - radiation
eiciency
rad
1
W the power aailable at the terminals o the antenna is
reduced by the actor
rad
rom that intercepted by the
antenna
W 1his applies to receied noise power as well as receied
signal power, so the noise temperature o the antenna
will be reduced rom the brightness temperature by the
actor
rad
.
W In addition, thermal noise will be generated internally
by resistie losses in the antenna, and this will increase
the noise temperature o the antenna.
W In terms o noise power, a lossy antenna can be
modeled as a lossless antenna and an attenuator haing
a power loss actor L ~1,
rad
W the resulting noise temperature seen at the antenna
terminals can be ound as
The equivalent temperature T
A
is called the antenna noise temperature, and is a
combination oI the external brightness temperature seen by the antenna and the
thermal noise generated by the antenna
A receiing antenna connected to a receier through a lossy transmission line. An impedance mismatch
exists between the antenna and the line.
W 1he equialent noise temperature seen at the
output terminals o the transmission line consists
o three contributions
noise power rom the antenna due to internal noise and
the background brightness temperature
noise power generated rom the lossy line in the
orward direction and
noise power generated by the lossy line in the backward
direction and relected rom the antenna mismatch
toward the receier.
W radiation eiciency
accounts or resistie losses, and thus inoles the
generation o thermal noise
W Aperture eiciency
applies to the loss o directiity in aperture
antennas
W such as relectors, lenses, or horns
due to eed spill oer or sub optimum aperature
excitation
ligure o merit o antennas
W antenna noise temperature
W G,1 ratio
IkISS 1kANSMISSICN ICkMULA
A basic radio system
-olse haracLerlzaLlon of a
Mlcrowave 8ecelver
microwave receiver Iront end (including antenna and
transmission line contributions)
the total noise power at the output oI the receiver, N
0
, will be due
to contributions Irom the antenna pattern, the loss in the antenna,
the loss in the transmission line, and Irom the receiver component
W 1he receier components consist o an Rl ampliier with gain
G
Rl
and noise temperature 1
Rl
, a mixer with an Rl-to-Il
conersion loss actor L

and noise temperature 1

, and an Il
ampliier with gain G
Il
and noise temperature 1
Il
. 1he noise
W 1he component noise temperatures can be related
W to noise igures as 1 ~ ,l - 1,1
0
.
W the equialent noise temperature o the receier
W 1he transmission line connecting the antenna to the receier
has a loss L
1
, and is at a physical temperature 1
P
, its equialent
noise temperature
W 1he noise temperature o the transmission line ,1L,
and receier cascade
W the entire antenna pattern can collect noise power.
I the antenna has a reasonably high gain with
relatiely low side lobes, we can assume that all noise
power comes ia the main beam, so that the noise
temperature o the antenna ,
rad
is the eiciency o the
antenna, 1
p
is its physical temperature, and 1
b
is the equialent brightness
temperature o the background seen by the main beam,
W noise power at the antenna terminals, which is also
the noise power deliered to the transmission line ,B
is the system bandwidth,
W I S
i
is the receied power at the antenna terminals,
then the input signal-to-noise ratio at the antenna
terminals is S
i
,N
i
W 1he output signal power
G
S\S
system power gain
W 1he output noise power ,@sys has been deflned as Lhe
overall sysLem nolse LemperaLure%
W The output signal-to- noise ratio
8AuA8 S?S@MS
W 8adlo ueLecLlon And 8anglng
W a LransmlLLer sends ouL a slgnal whlch ls parLly reflecLed by
a dlsLanL LargeL and Lhen deLecLed by a senslLlve recelver lf
a narrow beam anLenna ls used Lhe LargeLs dlrecLlon can be
accuraLely glven by Lhe poslLlon of Lhe anLenna @he
dlsLance Lo Lhe LargeL ls deLermlned by Lhe Llme requlred for
Lhe slgnal Lo Lravel Lo Lhe LargeL and back and Lhe radlal
veloclLy of Lhe LargeL ls relaLed Lo Lhe uoppler shlfL of Lhe
reLurn slgnal
W @wo baslc radar sysLem
monosLaLlc radar
blsLaLlc radar
@he 8adar quaLlon
I the transmitter radiates a power P
t
through an antenna oI gain
G, the power density incident on the target is
R is the distance to the target.
t is assumed that the target is in the main beam direction oI the
antenna.
The target will scatter the incident power in various directions;
the ratio oI the scattered power in a given direction to the incident
power density is deIined as the 7,/,7.748880.9439, oI the
target, P
S
is the total power scattered by the target
W 1he radar cross section has the dimensions o area, and is a property o the target
itsel. It depends on the incident and relection angles, as well as the polarization o
the incident wae
W the target acts as a inite-sized source, the
power density o the reradiated ield must
decay as 'xR
2
away rom the target
W the power density o the scattered ield back at
the receie antenna
W or the eectie area o the antenna gies the
receied power as- radar equation
W noise receied by the antenna and generated in the
receier, there will be some minimum detectable
power that can be discriminated by the receier. I
this power is P
min
, then the maximum range is