Agricultural Botany 101 ABT English Programme

Introduction All organisms are composed of small structure called CellEach cell consists of a Cell Wall surrounding a mass ofProtoplasm Protoplasm contain small organs called Organelles such asNucleus Mitochonderia, Chloroplasts etc Within each cell all the plant activities and metabolism has been.occurred .All cells contain at least some membranes-

Cell Structure

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Composition of membranes
The membranes are composed of one layerProtein and two layers of Phospholipids Molecules .in a ratio of 60: 40% - Some membranes contain a small amount of Sugar, less than 8% (chain of oligosaecharies) which make the membrane more distinctive and easy to recognize.

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Membrane functions .Regulate the passage of molecules in/out of cellsDivided the cell into numerous compartments.Act as surfaces that hold enzymesMembrane Properties :It can grow by the cell growth- 1
by forming molecule by molecule in a certain region of the cell, then all pieces of membranes are moved as small Bubbles or Vesicles to different sites. When vesicle of preformed membrane arrives at the growing membrane, the two are fuse.

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2- Membrane fusion allows transportation the materials inside the cell:

: Exocytosis

when vesicle moves it will release materials and .wastes to the Outside of cell
: Endocytosis Is specially common in Algae and other microscopic organisms, where the materials and wastes release Inside the cell in a certain organ.

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3- Permeability : meaning the ability of membrane to allow the substances to pass through it. :There are three types of permeability
a- Selectively permeable : Some substances can cross the .membrane more easily and rapidly than others b- Freely permeable : All substances can cross the membrane .even if they are useless for cell c- Impermeable : membrane which does Not Allow any .substances to pass through
Membrane is dynamic: Means the nature of membrane can- 4 change as the nature of cell change Membranes are affected by heat, cold, poisons, alcohol.et- 5
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:Organisms are divided into two main categories 1- Multicellular Organisms : have more than one cell of several types and specialized for different tasks. When the plant develop, the cell become specially adapted for specific task and depend on each other. 2- Unicellular Organisms : have only one cell, each cell do all tasks; sensing to the environment, gathering nutrients, excreting wastes..etc.

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Basic cell types

:There are two types of basic cell 1- Prokaryotic cells : simple cells, no nucleus or organelles, have a special amino acids. Present in Bacteria and Cyanobacteria. 2- Eukaryotic cells : complex cells, have true nucleus, membrane and many organelles. Amino acids are absent. Present in Angiosperms (flowering plants)

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:Plant cell component All cells, either prokaryotic or eukaryotic are made of two :main substances a- Protoplast (Protoplasm) : Is a mass of protein, lipids, nucleic acids and water. It has also many different organelles. b- Cell wall : Is the wall which surrounded the protoplast and all cell components. It is Primary in the young plants and become Secondary in the mature ones, in addition to the middle lamella which glued the two adjacent primary wall.
Prof. Adel Khattab

Prof. Adel Khattab

Plant cell, showing subcellular components (Organelles) (1) nucleolus (2) nuclear membrane (3) Ribosomes (4) Vesicle (5) Rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER) (6) Golgi apparatus (7) Cytoskeleton (8) Smooth ER (9) Mitochondria (10) Vacuole (11) Cytoplasm (12) Lysosome (13) Centrioles within centrosome

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The components of plant cell

: Plasma membrane- 1 - Is the membrane that completely covers the surface of protoplasm. - It is selectively permeable membrane, the outer surface called Ectoplast (or Plasmalemma), the inner called Tonoplast. - It contains Molecular Pumps to transport substances In or Out of cell.

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Prof. Adel Khattab

:( Nucleus (plural Nuclei - 2 Serves as an archive or permanent storage place for the.organism's genetic information The nucleus of eukaryotic cell is surrounded byNuclear Envelope, which is an Outer and Inner .membranes Nuclear Envelope contains numerous small holes.called Nuclear Pores

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The Nucleus

The eukaryotic cell nucleus. Visible in this diagram: ribosome, double membranes, chromatin, nucleolus and nucleoplasm.

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Within the nucleus is a substance called Nucleoplasm contains DNA, proteins, enzymes, several types of RNA and water. - All information stored in the DNA inside every nucleus. - Inside every nucleus is one to many bodies called Nucleolus which forming Ribosome RNA. - Nucleus is large (50% of the cell area). - Nucleus often flows with the cytoplasm changing its shape.
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Central Vacuole - 3
- Have a single membrane called Vacuole Membrane or Tonoplast. - Act as a digestive organ. - Regulate the enzymes activities inside the cell as it is contain Calsium. - When the central vacuole grows, it allows the cell to grow. - It contain water, salts, pigments, crystals, starch, proteins and various types of fiberous materials.

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Vacuole

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:( Cytoplasm (Cytosol - 4
.Semi liquid substance- Fill all the area of the meristematic cells and close to the wall in mature cells. - It contains 85-95% water, salts, fat, carbohydrate and protein. .Sensitive to the poisonal chemicals, heat and cold- Cytoplasm always in a constant movement, which allow the materials to transport inside and between cells. This process called " Cytoplasmic Streaming or Cyclosis

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Cytoplasm contain the following membranous organelles

:Mitochonderia- 1 :Structure* - It has outer and inner membranes. - The inner membrane are folded to form large sheets called Cristae to provide more area for holding a lot of enzymes for Respiration process (70% enzymes of the cell). - Between cristea there is liquid called Matrix.

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Mitochonderia

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:Function* - Do the respiration process and Produce Energy for cell activities. :Properties* - The outer membrane is Freely permeable, while the inner is Selectively. - It has special DNA and Ribosomes differ from those of cell. - It is dynamic and it can grow. - It can divided into two or fuse in one. - From one micron in diameter and 5 micron in length.

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Plastids- 2
:Structure* - It has an inner and outer membrane. - The inner fluid called Stroma (type of protein) - In a certain region the Thylakoids (membrane sheets) form a small bag-like vesicles stacked together form Grana (single Granum), which carrying chlorophyll

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Chloroplast ultrastructure 1. outer membrane 2. inter membrane space 3. inner membrane 4. stroma (aqueous fluid) 5. thylakoid lumen 6. thylakoid membrane 7. granum (stack of thylakoids) 8. thylakoid (lamella) 9. starch 10. ribosome 11. DNA 12. drop of lipids

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:Functions* - The chloroplasts do the Photosynthesis process, where it absorb Co2 in the presence of light and produce O2 and energy. - The actual conversion of Co2 into carbohydrate (energy) occurs in the stroma. - If the chloroplasts produce sugar more than the cell needed, then it will convert the extra sugar into starch. - According to the type of the plastid, it can do some other metabolism: * Synthesis and Storage specialized Lipids. * Storage carbohydrates and irons. * Formation colours for some flowers and fruits

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Properties: -It has some pigments; such as Chlorophyll and Carotenoid. - Has Ribosomes, Starch and Circular DNA. - All plastids initiated from Proplastids which change to the different types of plastids according to the kind of storage materials. - About 80% iron of leaves may be found in chloroplasts and leucoplasts.

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Type of Plastids
Amyoplasts: Present in tissues does not do photosynthesisand store starch such as roots, wood, bark. Chromoplasts: Present in flowers and fruits and contain fat.and lipids .Etioplasts: Occur in tissues are grown without light.Leucoplasts: Colorless plastids; no lipid or chlorophyll- Chloroplasts: occur in the green organ such as leaves and stem, .contain chlorophyll and do photosynthesis .Proplastids: Small and undifferentiated plastids-

Prof. Adel Khattab

Prof. Adel Khattab

Types of plastids

3- Ribosomes
- Small spherical bodies immersed in the protoplasm on the out surface of the Endoplasmic Reticulum. - Ribosomes has three molecules of RNA (Ribosomal RNA) and proteins. - Ribosomes responsible for Protein synthesis in cells. - Many thousand present in each cell.

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(Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER- 4

- Define as a system of very narrow tubes and sheets of membrane that form a network throughout the cytoplasm. It joins each part of cell. :There are two types of ER*Rough ER : a huge amount of ribosomes attached to the ER. * Smooth ER : where the ER has not any ribosome.

- Functions:
- Facilitation of protein folding and the transport of synthesized proteins in sacs called cisternae. - Secretory proteins, mostly glycoproteins. - The smooth ER is the site at which some drugs are modified by microsomal enzymes

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5- Golgi Bodies (Known also as Dictyosomes)

- Define as a flat and curved array (layers) arrange above each other. :The functions are* It is a place for gathering enzyme and proteins. * Forming cellulose. * Growing the cell wall. * Secrete materials.

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1. Nuclear membrane. Nuclear pore. 3. Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER). 4. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER). 5. Ribosome attached to RER. 6. Macromolecules. 7. Transport vesicles. 8. Golgi apparatus. 9. inner face of Golgi apparatus. 10. outer face of Golgi apparatus. 11. place of lipids

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6- Microbodies
- Small and spherical bodies about 0.5 to 1.5 micron in diameter. - There are two types: Peroxi-somes and Glyoxi-somes. - Both types contain Catalase enzyme which convert the poisonal compound called Peroxide inside the cell into water and oxygen. - Peroxisomes accompanied with chloroplasts, while Glyoxisomes in plant, converting the storage fate into sugar which is very important for seed germination.

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Cytoplasm contain also the following nonmembranous organelles

A- Cytosol - Most of the volume of cytoplasm is a clear substance called Cytosol or Hyaloplasm - It is consists of water, enzymes, ribosomes, microtubules, microfilaments and chemical compounds.

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B- Microtubules : Located next to the plasma membrane. - The functions are: - Keep vesicles away from the plasma membrane. - Pull the plasma membrane away from the cell wall. - Forming filaments which pull chromosomes to both end of cell during division. C- Microfilaments : - They have implicated in different types of structure and movement.

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Cell Wall
- The cell wall is differentiated from the protoplasts. - Thickness of the cell wall is varied according to age, type and function of cell. - The cell wall contains amount of cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin, chitin, lignin..etc. - It can distinguish 3 layers of wall: * Primary cell wall. * Secondary cell wall. * Middle Lamella.

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A- Primary cell wall :

- It is the first wall established in the cell. - Consist of cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin and sometimes lignin. - Cellulose Chain arrange Parallel to each other in a cluster called Micells. - Micells arranged Parallel to each other in a cluster called Microfibrils. - Microfibrils arranged Cross each other in a large cluster called Macrofibrils. - The Intercellular Space appear between the Macrofibrils.

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B- Secondary cell wall

- It formed inside the primary wall after the cell become mature and loose plasticity. - It Consists of cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin and lignin. - The Microfibrils arrange Parallel to each other in the Macrofibrils cluster. - The intercellular space is narrower than that of the primary wall.
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- Its functions are protection and strength.

C- Middle Lamella :
- It is adhesive substance from Magnisum and Calsium Pectates. - It glued the two primary walls of any adjacent cells. Functions of the cell wall: - Structural and Mechanical support for cells. - Maintain and determine the cell shape. - Resist internal pressure of cell. - Control rate and direction of cell growth. - Protect the cell against pathogens, dehydration and other inconvenient environmental conditions.
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Plasmodesma allow molecules to travel between plant cells through the symplastic pathway
Prof. Adel Khattab

Prof. Adel Khattab

Plant Tissues
Tissue is "a group of cells". - It could be simple tissue, if it has only one similar type of cells in shape, structure and function (e.g. parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma). - It could be also compound tissue, if it has different types of cells in shape, structure and function, but all cells at the end do the tissue function (e.g. xylem and phloem). The plant tissues could be in three types: - Dermal tissues : the outer covering layers, differentiated into Epidermis of roots, stems and mesophyll of leaves. - Ground tissues : the area between dermal and vascular tissue, forming Cortex and Pith of the above organs. -Vascular tissues : the central region, contain Xylem and Phloem

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Basic types of cells and tissues:

There are three types of cells and tissues based on the Nature of cells: 1- Parenchyma Tissues : Parenchyma is the most common Simple Tissue. - Cells have a Primary thin and Flexible cell wall, generally Spherical in shape - Living cells and may remain in the meristematic status at maturity and are able to divide to add more new cells. - Cells have large Central Vacuoles allows the cells to store and regulate ions, waste products and water. - Cells have Nucleus and Nucleolus. - Between cells there are Large Intercellular Spaces.
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Parenchyma functions:
- In leaves, parenchyma with chloroplasts is responsible for photosynthesis and gas exchange. - Store starch, protein, fats and oils and water in roots (e.g. potato), stems (e.g. potatos), seed endosperm (e.g. cereals) and cotyledons (e.g. groundnut). - Secrete nectaries as in the resin ducts. - Return back to the meristematic status and can renewed the damage tissues.

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2- Collenchyma Tissues :
- The name 'Collenchyma' derives from the Greek word (kl-la), meaning "glue", which refers to the thick, glistening appearance of the walls in fresh tissues. - Collenchyma tissue is Simple with Elongated cells with thickened walls and not lignified. - Collenchyma walls exhibits Plasticity; the ability to be deformed by pressure. - They provide Structural Support, particularly in growing shoots and leaves. - The wall is made up of cellulose, pectin and water.

Why the collenchyma wall is consider a primary wall ?

- Wall thickness occurred during cell elongation. - The cells can return back to the meristematic status because they contain protoplasts able to remove the thickness wall. - The cells have high amount of water and pectin.
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There are three principal types of collenchyma:

A- Angular collenchyma : thickening present on the corner of cells. B- Lamellar collenchyma : thickening present on the upper and lower surfaces of cells (at the tangential face of the cell wall). C- Lacunar collenchyma : thickening present around the intercellular space between cells.

Cross section of collenchyma cells

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3- Sclerenchyma Tissues
-The term "Sclerenchyma" is derived from the Greek (skl-rs), meaning"hard". - Sclerenchyma is a principal supporting Simple tissue in plants, they are dead cells. - Have Primary and thick Secondary walls and always lignified. - Their walls consist of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin.

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- Sclerenchyma cells are existing in two groups: 1- Mechanical (none conducting) sclerenchyma : a- Fibers:
- Fibers cells are generally long, slender, flexible, tapered ends and with simple pits. - Fibers usually occurring in Strands or Bundles. - Fibers usually associated with the xylem and phloem of the vascular bundles. - The fibers of the xylem are always lignified, while those of the phloem are cellulosic. - Fibers are of great economical importance as source material for many fabrics industies (flax, hemp, jute, ramie). * Some examples of Soft and Elastic : Flax, Jute and Ramie. * Some examples of Hard fibers: Gramineae and Lilies.
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b- Sclereids - Sclereids are relatively short as stone cells of pears, Inflexible with simple pits. - Sclereids are variable in shape, can be Isodiametric (Cuboidal), forked or branched. - Sclereids can occur as Single cells or small Groups of cells within parenchyma tissues. - Sclereids have many types (will explain in practical sessions): * Stone * Osteo sclereids * Macro sclereids, * Astro sclereids * Filiform sclereids

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Cross section of sclerenchyma fibers

A bundle of optical fibers

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Fresh mount of a sclereid

2- Conducting Sclerenchyma (Tracheary elements)

a- Tracheids: - Tracheids are elongated cells in the xylem of vascular plant that serve in the transport of water and mineral salts. - Long and Narrow cells, with tapered ends, no perforations area, with simple pits. - Present in none vascular plants. - The two major functions of tracheids are; - transportation system and - structural support. b- Vessel elements: - A Vessel Element is one of the cell types found in xylem, the water conducting tissue of plants. - Vessel elements are typically found in the Angiosperms but absent in Gymnosperms. - Short and Wide cells, perpendicular end wall, 1-2 Perforations area. - The cell wall is strongly lignified.
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Prof. Adel Khattab

Image (top( and Transmission Light Microscope image (bottom( of vessel elements

The Stem External Organization of Stem

Stem definition:
The stem is " the above ground structure that has vascular tissue, where the leaves, flowers and fruits are attached" . The term Shoots is often confused with the term Stems; Shoots refer to new fresh plant growth including stems, leaves and flowers" Stem Structure: -The stem is normally divided into Nodes and Internodes. The nodes hold Buds which grow into one or more leaves,inflorescence (flowers).

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Stem showing internode, nodes and leaf petioles

Types of stems :
the stem could be in two types: A - Aerial stems: which grow above the soil and have many patterns: Erect - Stolonmiferous - Creeping - Climbing (by Spines by Tendrils byTwining) B - Underground stems: which grow under the soil surface and have different forms: * Bulb : Short, upright organ used by plants for food storage or reproduction, with specialized leaves modified into thick flesh scales ( as Garlic & Onion). * Corm :Short, upright, hard or fleshy stems covered with thin, dry papery leaves (as Gladiolus). * Rhizome :With reduced scale like leaves. The top can generate leafy stems while the bottom can produce roots (as Bamboo). * Tuber : An enlarged fleshy end of a stem, generally from rhizomes but often also referring to thickened roots too (as Potatoes).
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Bulb

Corm

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Rhizome

Tuber

Internal Organization of the Stem

Stem usually forming from three tissues: - Dermal Tissue: covers the outer surface of the stem (epidermis). -The Ground Tissue: usually consists mainly of parenchyma cells and surrounding the vascular tissue (cortex and pith). -Vascular Tissue: long distance transport elements (xylem and phloem..

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The arrangement of Primary Tissues

1- The epidermis:
- Is a single-layered group of cells or multiple cell layers that covers the outer surface of the stem and forms a boundary between the plant and the external world. - Epidermal cells are tightly linked to each other and provide mechanical Strength and Protection to the plant against bacteria and fungi. - The outer walls covered with Cutin in a layer called Cutical and sometimes Wax to outside. - Epidermal cells have Stomata and Trichomes.

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: The epidermal tissue includes several differentiated cell types epidermal cells, guard cells, stoma , palisade tissue, spongy tissue,

: The epidermal tissue includes several differentiated cell types epidermal cells, guard cells, subsidiary cells, and epidermal hairs (trichomes), stoma , palisade tissue, spongy tissue, vascular bundle

: A- Stomata
- Consists of: Pair of Guard Cells, Stomatal Pores and Two Adjacent Cells (or Subsidiary Cells). -There are four main patterns of stomata based on Shape, Number and Arrangement of subsidiary cells: * Anomocytic : No subsidiary cells present. * Anisocytic : Three subsidiary cells; one small and two large. * Paracytic * Diacytic : Two Parallel subsidiary cells. : Two Opposite subsidiary cells.

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hundreds of stomata on the underside of a leaf (40x magnification(

Stoma in a tomato leaf

A stoma in cross section

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stoma showing two guard cells

B- Trichomes:
- Some outer epidermal walls elongated outward to form Hairs (Trichomes). - Hairs could be Simple or Compound, Unicellular or Multicellular, Branched or Unbranched, Glandular or Non- Glandular. - Simple hair has only one cell, Compound hairs has many cells, glandular hairs produce nectar or digestive enzymes. - Simple hairs such as: Root hairs, Fibral, T-Shape, Papillae and Stringing . - Compound hairs such as: Uniceriate, Stellate, Peltate and Shaggy hairs.

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The epidermal cell functions:

- Protects against water loss, - Regulates gas exchange, - Secretes metabolic compounds, and - Absorbs water and mineral nutrients (especially in roots). Woody stems and some other stem structures produce a secondary covering called the Periderm that replaces the epidermis as the protective covering.

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Cross-section of a flax plant stem 1. Pith 2. Protoxylem 3. Xylem 4. Phloem 5. Sclerenchyma 6. Cortex 7. Epidermis.

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2- Cortex :
-The cortex is the Outer Layer of the stem, bounded on the outside by the Epidermis and on the inside by the Endodermis. - Cortical cells are large thin-walled parenchyma cells. -The outer cortical cells often irregularly thickened cell walls, and are called Collenchyma. - Some of the outer cortical cells may contain chloroplasts.

* Functions:
- Transportation of materials into the central cylinder from the root. - Storage food in the form of starch.

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3- Vascular Tissues :
A - Vascular tissue is a "complex conducting tissue", found in vascular plants and formed of more than one cell type. - The Primary components (similar to pipes) of vascular tissue are: 1- The Xylem (conduct water and minerals): Xylem has two types of conducting cells (or Trachary elements); Tracheids and Vessel elements. In addition two Xylem Parenchyma & Xylem Fibers Comparison between tracheids and vessel elements. Characters Tracheids Vessel elements
Shape End wall Long and narrow Short and wide Tapered end Perpendicular Secondary wall Annular, Helical, Scalariform, Reticulate, Pitted Pits Simple & Bordered Bordered Perforation plate absent Usually two Represented in absent vascular plants (Angiosperm)

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Types of secondary thickness on vessel

The secondary wall of vessel is Impermeable to water, so the areas Of the permeable primary wall must remain uncovered to allow water to pass. There are five types of secondary thickness according to the plant age and conditions: Annular Helical (spiral) Scalariform Reticulate - Pitted

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2- The Phloem (distribute sugar and minerals): - Phloem has two types of conducting cells:
- Sieve cells, Sieve tube members. In addition to Phloem Parenchyma, Phloem Fibers and Companion cell.

Comparison between Sievs cell and Sieve tube members

Characters
Shape End wall Sieve area Associated cells Presence

Sieve cell
Long and narrow Tapered end Small, located over all the cell surface Albuminous cell Non-vascular

Sieve tube members

Short and wide Perpendicular end Small, located on side Companion cell Vascular plants.

Solid green: sieve tube; dashed green: sieve tube plates; light pink: companion cell; dark pink: nucleus;
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- Between the xylem and phloem is a meristem called the Vascular Cambium divides and producing additional xylem and phloem. - The vascular tissue in plants is arranged in strands called Vascular Bundles - These bundles include both xylem and phloem, as well as supporting and protective cells. - In stems, the xylem lies closer to the interior of the stem with phloem towards the exterior.

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Types of Vascular Bundles in Stem

1- Collateral: * Open : xylem interior, phloem exterior and cambium in between. * Closed: xylem interior, phloem exterior and no cambium. 2- Biocollateral : Phloem in both sides, and xylem & cambium in between. 3- Concentric : * Amphicribral : Phloem surrounding Xylem * Amphivasal : Xylem surrounding Phloem

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The Roots External Organization of Root

Root definition: - In vascular plants, the root is the organ of a plant that typically lies below the surface of the soil". - So, it is better to define root "as a part of a plant body that bears no leaves and lacks nodes". This is not always the case, however, since a root can also be aerial (growing above the ground). The first root differentiate in seedling is called the Radical

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Root Functions:
The four major functions of roots are: Absorption of water and inorganic nutrients, Anchoring of the plant body to the soil and Storage of food and nutrients. Using in vegetative reproduction.

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Primary and secondary roots in a cotton plant

- Organization - Most

of root systems:

Dicots have a single prominent Tap Root, Perennial and have Secondary growth. * Tap Root is much larger than all the rest of the numerous small Lateral Roots. * Tap Root develops from embryonic root called Radical in the seed.

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- Most Monocots and some Dicots have a mass of many similarly - sized roots called Fibrous Root System, Annual and have no - Secondary growth. * Fibrous Root arises after the radical dies during or immediately after germination. * Root Primordia at the base of dead radical grow out and form the first stage of Fibrous Root System. * These roots which do not arise on pre-existing roots and because they are not radicals, they called "Adventitious Root ".

Internal Organization of Root

-

The arrangement of the cells in a root is root hair, epidermis, cortex, endodermis , pericycle and lastly the xylem and phloem in the centre of a root.

1- Root Cap : - A thick spongy layer which protect the apical meristem. - Grow downward, and the cells on the edges grow toward the sides. - Have starch grains

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2- Root Apical Meristem : - It lies behind the root cap. - Meristematic cells responsible for division and expansion.

- Growth from apical meristems is known as Primary Growth.

3- Elongation Zone :
- Behind the root apical meristem.

- The outer cells are Protoderm and differentiate into Epidermis. - The center cells are Pro-vascular Tissues which develops into Primary - Xylem and Primary Phloem. - Between the protoderm and the pro-vascular tissues is a region called - Ground Tissues which differentiated into Cortex. In the middle there is the - Pith. - The innermost layer of cortical cells differentiated into cylinder cells called Endodermis.
-- Between the vascular - called Pericycle

tissues and the endodermis are parenchyma cells

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- Casparian Strips :
-

- The Radial Walls of endodermis covered by Strips of Lignin and Suberin called Casparian Strips. - Casparian Strips controlled the types of minerals that enter the xylem.

4- Maturation Zone :

- In this zone the Hairs are appear and they are Unicellular.

The growing tip of a fine root

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-Passage

Cells :

- Because Casparian Strips are Impermeable, there are some cells do not covered by these strips to allow water and minerals to pass.

Water and Mineral transportation:

Water and Minerals moves from the epidermal cells through hairs to the Cortex cells then to the Vascular Tissues by two ways: * Apoplastic transportation: through Walls and Intercellular Spaces of cortex cells. * Symplastic transportation: through the Plasmodesmata which go from cell to cell.
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Types of Vascular Bundles in Root In Dicots:

* Xylem lies on the same diameter alternate with the phloem in a type called Radial bundle. * Number of Xylem Arms and Phloem groups are 2-4. * Few or no Pith cells present. * Protxylem and Protophloem : lies to the Outer side while Metaxylem and Metaphloem : to the Inner side.

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In Monocots:
* Xylem and phloem bundle distributed Randomly in the ground tissues. * Number of Xylem Arms and Phloem groups are 8 or more. * Many Pith cells are present. * Protxylem and Protophloem lies to the Outer side while Metaxylem and Metaphloem to the Inner side.

Initiation and Development of lateral Roots

* Lateral Roots are initiated by division of the Pericycle cells. * Few pericycle cells creating a small Root Primordium that organized itself into a Root Apical Meristem and pushes outward as a starting lateral root. * The new lateral root destroys all cells on the front of it (cortex, endodermis and epidermis). * Then the lateral root formed a root cap, protoxylem and protphloem and connected to the parents vascular tissues.

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Root growth * Early root growth occurred by the apical meristem on the tip of the root. * The meristem cells continuously divided, producing more meristem. * Root Cap undifferentiated cells (these are to protect the meristem). * The meristem becomes the primary tissues after elongation to push the root tip downward in the growing medium. * Gradually these cells differentiate and mature into specialized cells of the root tissues.

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Specialized roots

The roots, or parts of roots, of many plant species have become specialized to serve adaptive purposes:

* Adventitious roots:

- Arise out from the more usual root, branches, stem, leaves and old woody roots. - They commonly occur in Monocots, but also in many Dicots (such as Clover, Strawberry). - Most aerial roots are adventitious.

* Fine roots:

- Primary roots that have the function of water and nutrient uptake. - They are often heavily branched. - These roots may be short lived.

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* Aerial roots: - Roots entirely above the ground, such as in ivy (Hedera) - They function as prop roots, as in maize * Contractile roots: - They pull bulbs or corms of Monocots, such as Lily. - Deeper in the soil through expanding radially and contracting longitudinally. - They have a wrinkled surface. * Propagative roots: - Rroots that form adventitious buds that develop into aboveground shoots. (called Suckers)

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* Stilt roots: - These are adventitious support roots, common among Mangroves. - They grow down from lateral branches, branching in the soil. * Storage roots (Tuberous): - These roots are modified for storage of food or water, such as Carrots, Sweet potato & Beets. - They include some Taproots and tuberous roots.

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Aerating roots

Stilt roots

Roots can protect the environment by holding the soil to prevent soil erosion

Roots on onion bulbs

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Root uses:
- The term Root crops refers to any edible underground plant structure. - Edible roots include Sweet Potato, beet, carrot, turnip & Radish sugar beet is an important source of sugar. - Important medicines form from roots as Ginseng & Gentian - Several legumes that have nitrogen-fixing root nodules are used as green manure crops, which provide Nitrogen Fertilizer for other crops. - Vegetative propagation of plants via cuttings depends on adventitious root formation. Such as Chrysanthemum, Carnation & many Houseplants.
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The Leaves
leaf is an above-ground plant organ specialized for photosynthesis". Also "sites in most plants where Transpiration take place".
-

For this purpose, a leaf is typically flat (laminar) and thin, to expose the Chloroplasts to more Light and to increase the absorption of Carbon Dioxide and produce Oxgen. Leaves can store Food and Water, and are modified in some plants for other purposes.
The leaves

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- Epidermis
- The Epidermis is the Outer layer of cells covering the leaf. - It forms the boundary separating the plant's inner cells from the external world. - Most leaves have Upper (Adaxial) and Lower (Abaxial)surfaces that have different construction and may serve different functions. - The epidermis is usually Transparent. - epidermal cells lack chloroplasts - It coated on the outer side with a Waxy Cuticle that prevents water loss. .
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- The cuticle is thinner on the lower epidermis than on the upper - epidermis, and in dry climates than wet climates. - The epidermal cells are the most numerous, largest, more - elongated in the leaves of Monocots than in those of Dicots. - The epidermis is covered with Stomata. - The stomata surrounded on each side by Guard cells, and two to four Subsidiary cells that lack chloroplasts. - The stomata are more numerous over the lower epidermis than the upper epidermis.

The epidermis Functions:

- Protection against water loss by way of transpiration, - Regulation of gas exchange and water vapor through stomata, - Secretion of metabolic compounds and in some species, absorption of water.

- Mesophyll : - Most area of leaf between the upper and lower layers of epidermis is parenchyma (ground tissue) or chlorenchyma tissue called the mesophyll. - Leaves are normally green in color, which comes from Chlorophyll found in plastids in the chlorenchyma cells. - In Most flowering plants the mesophyll is divided into two layers: 1- Upper Palisade layer: of tightly packed, vertically elongated cells, one to two cells thick, directly beneath the upper pidermis.
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* Cells contain many more Chloroplasts than the spongy layer. * These long Cylinderical cells are regularly arranged in one to five rows. * The slight separation of the cells provides maximum absorption of carbon dioxide. * Sun leaves have a Multi-layered palisade layer, while shade leaves or older leaves closer to the soil, are SingleLayered.

Prof. Adel Khattab

Palisade cells

Epidermal cells

2- lower Spongy layer :

- beneath the palisade layer. - The cells of the spongy layer are more Rounded and not so tightly packed. - There are large Intercellular Air Spaces. - These cells contain fewer chloroplasts than those of the palisade layer.

Spongy cells
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Vascular Bundles (Veins (

- Present between the palisade parenchyma and the spongy - mesophyll. - The pattern of the veins is called Venation . - In Dicots plants, there is only One Main Midrib (Midvein) Netted with many Lateral Veins, which branched to many Minor Veins. - In Monocots plants, there is only One Main Midvein Parallel - with many Lateral Veins on both sides.

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The veins are made up of:

- Xylem : tubes that absorp water and minerals from the roots into the leaf. - Phloem : tubes that usually move sap, with dissolved sucrose, produced by photosynthesis in the leaf, out of the leaf. The xylem typically lies over the phloem.

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Vein skeleton

Basic types of leaf

-

* Foliage leaf: normal and common leaf patterns. * Prophyll leaf: the first two leaves in the seedling of bean. * Scale leaves: dry protection leaves surrounding the buds. * Fleshy leaves: for storage as in onion. * Floral leaves: as in flowers; sepals, petals..

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Arrangement of leaves on the stem:

Phyllotaxy: define as the arrangement of leaves on a plant stem Pattern structure - There are four basic patterns: - Alternate : One leaf growing at a single node (as in grasses). - Opposite : Two leaves grow in opposite directions from the same node. - Whorled : Three or more leaves at each node. - Spiral : Three or more leaves occur as a basal structure where all the leaves are attached at the base of shoot and the internodes are small or very close.

the

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Opposite

Alternate

Whorled
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Spiral

Divisions of the blade (Lamina)

Two basic forms of the Blade (Lamina) :
- A Simple leaf : has an Undivided blade. - A Compound leaf : has a fully Subdivided blade, each leaflet of the blade separated along a main or secondary vein. Each leaflet can appear to be a simple leaf. - A Lobed leaf :has leaf shape formed of Lobes. but the gaps between lobes do not reach to the main vein.

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A leaf with laminar structure and pinnate venation

Compound leaves have two basic types:

- Palmately compound leaves : - have the leaflets rising from the end of the petiole in One point. - Pinnately compound leaves : - have the leaflets arranged along the main or mid-vein.
-

* Odd pinnate (single leaflet) : with one terminal leaflet (e.g.Rose). * Even pinnate (pair of leaflet) : with two terminal leaflets, (e.g. Acacia).

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* Bipinnately compound leaves :

the leaflets are arranged along a secondary vein that is one of several branching off the rachis. Each leaflet is called Pinnule". The pinnules on one secondary vein are called "Pinna (e.g. Poinciana) .

* Trifoliate (or trifoliolate) :

a pinnate leaf with just three leaflets (e.g. Clover).

Characteristics of the petiole:

-

Leaves could be:

- Petiolated : leaves have a petiole (leaf stem).

- Sessile : leaves have no petiole and the blade attaches directly to the stem. - Stipulate : it is an appendage on each side at the base of the petiole resembling a small leaf and present on the leaves of many dicotyledons.

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The overgrown petioles

- Venation

Branching veins on underside of leaf

Venation on lower epidermis

Palmate-veined leaf

Vein skeleton of leaf

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There are two types of venation:

-

1- Reticulate (also called pinnate-netted) : the veins arise pinnately from a single mid-vein and subdivide into veinlets to form a complicated network. Existing in dicotyledons. Reticulate has two subtypes: * Reticulate Pinnate : such as Duranta. * Reticulate Palmate : such as Custer bean.

Palmate-veined leaf
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Pinnate venation

2- Parallel :
main vein from the base of lamina and many lateral veins run parallel subsequently. Existing in Monocotyledons. Parallel has two subtypes: * Vertical : such as Wheat * Horizontal: such as Banana

The parallel veins

Leaf Shape:
1- Edge (margin): The following are some shapes of leaf margin. * Crenate : wavy-toothed; dentate with rounded eeth, such as Fagus * Dentate : toothed, such as Castanea (chestnut) * Entire : with a smooth margin; without toothing * Serrate: saw-toothed with asymmetrical teeth pointing forward, such as Urtica (nettle) * Spiny : with stiff, sharp points, such as some Ilex (hollies) and Cirsium (thistles).
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2- Tip:
The following are some shapes of leaf tip: * Acute: ending in a sharp, but not prolonged point * Emarginate: indented, with a shallow notch at the tip. * Mucronate : abruptly tipped with a small short point, a continuation of the midrib; tipped with a mucro. * Obtuse : rounded or blunt

as

Leaf Shape
Prof. Adel Khattab

3- Base : The following are some shapes of leaf base: * Cordate : heart-shaped with the notch towards the stalk. * Hastate : shaped like an halberd and with the basal lobes pointing outward. * Sagittate: shaped like an arrow-head and with the acute basal lobes pointing downward. * Reniform : kidney-shaped but rounder and broader than long. * Rounded : curving shape. Hairiness : "Hairs" on plants are properly called Trichomes. Leaves can show several degrees of hairiness. The meaning of several of the following terms can overlap.
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the Epidermal trichome trichomes that can trap and kill insects

lower bud of many trichomes Prof. Adel Khattab

Scanning electron microscope Image of trichomes

Trichomes (Hair-like appendages).

Abscission Zone :
- In deciduous trees there is a zone formed at the base of the petiole called

Abscission or Separation zone.

- It define as an area located perpendicular to the petiole. - Abscission zone composed of a top layer which has cells with weak walls. a bottom layer which expands in the autumn, breaking the weak walls of the cells in the top layer. This allows the leaf to be shed. - After the leaf is shed.The adjacent undamaged cells become corky forming Scar Tissues (Leaf Scar ) to protect the open area after the leaf falls down from the external environment and insects. - Abscission is a natural process of plant growth induced by the plant, in contrast to Decaying or falling off due to other causes.

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Adaptations :
- Leaves in temperate dry zones may be Seasonally Deciduous (falling off or dying for the inclement season). - Leaves have adapted to different environments in the following ways: * Sliced leaves: to reduce wind resistance. * Hairy leaf: with hairs on the leaf surface to trap humidity in dry climates and create a large boundary layer t reduce water loss. * Waxy leaf: wax on the surfaces to reduce water loss. * Large surface leaf: to provide large area for sunlight and provides shade for plant to minimize heating and reduce water loss. * Succulent leaves: to store water.

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- Leaves could be modified as:

- Petals: to atracts pollinators (e.g. all coloured roses) - Spines: to protects the plants (e.g. cacti). - Insect traps: helps in feeding the plants (carnivorous plants). - Bulbs: helps storing food and water (e.g. onions). - Tendrils: allows the plant to climb (e.g. peas).

Secondary growth in the flowering plants

Primary Meristems Protoderm Epidermis Provascular Tissues Primary Xylem Interfascicular Cambium Primary Phloem Ground Tissues Pith Cortex

Fascicular Cambium Vascular Cambium

Fusiform Initials Secondary Xylem

Ray Initials Xylem Rays

Secondary Phloem Phloem Rays Cork Cambium

Phelloderm

Cork or Phellem

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- The Vascular Cambium is a Lateral Meristem that produce the secondary body of the plant. - The vascular cambium is the source of both the Secondary Xylem (inwards, towards the pith) and the Secondary Phloem (outwards). - The vascular cambium is located between these tissues in the stem and root. - Vascular Cambium are found in Dicots and Gymnosperms but not Monocots, which usually lack secondary growth.

Prof. Adel Khattab

Vascular cambium hs two types of cells:

1. Fusiform Initials: - Long cells with tapered ends. - The cells divided Parallel to its wall (Perclinal Wall) to produce two elongated cells: * One remains as fusiform initials and the other become Secondary Xylem or Secondary Phloem. * If the Outer cells become Cambium, the Inner become Secondary Xylem. * If the Inner cells become Cambium, the Outer become Secondary Phloem. - The cells divided Longitudinally by cell Perpendicular to wall (Anticlinal Walls) to increase the number of cambial cells. - The Fusiform initials divided Transversely to form rows of Ray initials.

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Types of Fusiform Initials:

Storied

Cambium: Regular Horizontal rows of Cambium

cells produce Regular Vessels.

Non-Storied Cambium: Irregular cambium rows of cells

producing Vessels and parenchyma.

The ratio between " Fusiform and Ray initials is always Constant".

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2- Ray initials:
-

* Small and round to angular in shape. * The cells divided Parallel to the surface producing two cells. One remaining as ray initials and the other as Xylem Parenchyma (Inner ) or Phloem Parenchyma (Outer). * Another lateral meristem is the Cork Cambium (Phellogen), which produces Cork (part of the Bark).

Types of Fusiform Initials:

* Uniseriate: row of one cell wide

* Biseriate : row of two cells wide. *Multiseriate: row of many cells wide.

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Multiple cross sections of a flowering plant stem showing primary and secondary xylem and phloem

Secondary growth in plant

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Secondary Xylem & Secondary Phloem

Axial System (from Fusiform Initials)
Secondary Xylem Secondary Phloem

Radial System (from Ray Initials)

Xylem Parenchyma Phloem Parenchyma

Vessels Fibers

Sieve Tube Fibers Companion cell

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 All

cells formed to the Interior of the vascular cambium develops into Secondary Xylem (Woods). Axial System: Wood contains Tracheids and Vessel elements, in addition to more Fibers (called Hardwood), or few fibers (called Softwood). Radial System: Contains only Parenchyma cells.

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Growth rings (Woods)

- Where there are clear seasons, growth can occur in a an annual or seasonal pattern, leading to growth rings. - If these seasons are annual these growth rings are referred to as Annual Rings (no seasonal difference of growth rings). - If there are differences within a growth ring, then the part of a growth ring nearest the center and formed early in the growing season is usually composed of wider elements, lighter in color than that near the outer portion of the ring, and is known as Early wood or Spring wood. - The outer portion formed later in the season is then known as the Late wood or Summer wood.

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Earlywood and latewood in a ring-porous wood (wide growth rings)

earlywood and latewood in a softwood (growth rings closely spaced)

* When the rings are wide, the transition from spring wood to summer wood is gradual. While in the narrow rings the spring wood passes into summer wood abruptly. The narrow vessels of the summer wood make it richer in wood substance than the spring wood composed of wide vessels.
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Heart wood and sap wood

Heartwood: The term Heartwood derives solely from its position and not from any vital importance to the tree. Heartwood (or old xylem) is wood that, as a result of tylosis, has become more resistant to decay. Tylosis is the deposition of chemical substances (a genetically programmed process). Once heartwood formation is complete, the heartwood is dead. Usually heartwood looks different; much darker than living wood. Some species begin to form heartwood very early in life, so having only a thin layer of live sapwood.
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Sapwood:

- Sapwood is the younger, outermost wood. - In the growing tree it is living wood, and its principal functions are to conduct water from the roots to the leaves. - All wood in a tree is first formed as sapwood. - The more leaves a tree bears and the more vigorous its growth, the larger the volume of sapwood required. - Sapwood is thicker in the upper portion of the trunk of a tree than near the base, because the age and the diameter of the upper sections are less. - In species which show a distinct difference between heartwood and sapwood the natural color of heartwood is usually darker than that of the sapwood. The color difference does not mean the difference in the mechanical properties of heartwood and sapwood, but may be chemical difference

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Hard and soft woodsThe wood of Coast Redwood is red in color There is a strong relationship between the properties of wood and the properties of the tree that yielded it. - It is common to classify wood as either softwood or hardwood. - Hardwoods are not necessarily hard, and softwoods are not necessarily soft: * Balsa (a hardwood) is actually softer than any commercial softwood * Yew (softwoods) are harder than many hardwoods. - The wood from conifers (e.g. pine) is called softwood. - The wood from dicotyledons (e.g. oak) is called hardwood.
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Sections of tree trunk

A tree trunk Netherlands

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The churches of Kizhi, Russia built entirely of wood, without metal joints.

Uses:
Wood used for many purposes:
* Fuel. * Construction material for making houses, roof, tools, weapons, furniture, packaging, boats, artworks, lignin glue. * Musical instruments (violin, guitar, recorder and xylophone). * Sport equipments (ice hockey sticks and cricket and baseball bats). * Medicine treatment (bone substitute).
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Wood cut into straight planks and made into a wood flooring.

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The Saitta House, New York built in 1899 is made of wood

In the arts

Artists can use wood to create delicate sculptures.

Stringed instrument bows are often made brazilwood

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Phloem: - Sieve tube element

* Sieve tube elements (also called sieve tube members), are a type of elongated parenchyma cells in phloem tissue. * At the ends these cells are connected with other sieve elements, and together they constitute the sieve tube. * The main function of the sieve tube is transport of carbohydrates in the plant (e.g., from the leaves to the fruits and roots). * Unlike vessel elements, sieve elements are living cells.They are thick and circular and at different colours. * At the interface between two sieve tube members in angiosperms are sieve plates, pores in the plant cell walls that facilitate the movement of liquid.

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* Neighbouring each of the sieve tube elements is a minimum of one companion cell, connected by plasmodesmata (channels between the cells). * Sieve tube members have no cell nucleus, ribosomes, or a vacuole, the nucleus and ribosomes of its companion cell(s) compensate for this. * In leaves, these cells help in moving the sugar produced by photosynthesis in the mesophyll tissue into the sieve tube elements.

Sieve cells:
- Long, slender, conducting cells of the secondary phloem. - They have a narrower diameter and are more elongated compared to sieve tube members. - Sieve cells are associated with albuminous cells, which lack starch, thus making it possible to differentiate them from phloem parenchyma.

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Bark
- Bark is the outermost layers of stems and roots of woody plants. - Bark refers to all the tissues outside of the vascular cambium. - Consists of the inner bark and the outer bark: * The inner bark: which in older stems is living tissue, includes the innermost area of the periderm. * The outer bark: in older stems, includes the dead tissue on the surface of the stems, along with parts of the innermost periderm and all the tissues on the outer side of the periderm. - Products used by people that are derived from bark include: spices and other flavorings, tannin, resin, latex, medicines, poisons. - Bark has been used to make cloths, canoes, ropes and used as a surface for paintings and map making.

Prof. Adel Khattab

Cork
- An external, secondary tissue that is impermeable to water and gases, and is also called the phellem. - The cork is produced by the Cork cambium which is a layer of meristematically active cells which serve as a lateral meristem for the periderm. - The cork cambium, which is also called the phellogen, is normally only one cell layer thick and it divides to the outside producing cork. - The phelloderm, which is not always present in all barks, is a layer of cells formed by and interior to the cork cambium. - Together, the phellem (cork), phellogen (cork cambium) and phelloderm constitute the periderm.

Prof. Adel Khattab

- Cork cell walls contain suberin, a waxy substance to: * Protects the stem against water loss * Prevents infections by bacteria and fungal spores. - The layers of secondary stem are arranged from the outside to the inside : (1) Cork (Phellem) (2) Cork cambium (Phellogen) (3) Phelloderm (4) Cortex (5) S. Phloem (6) Vascular cambium (7) S. Xylem. * The bark includes (1) through (5). * The periderms includes (1),(2) and (3). - The layers of young stems are arranged from the outside to the inside: epidermis, periderm, cortex, primary phloem, secoundary phloem, vascular cambium and then xylem. - The skin on the potato tuber constitutes the cork of the periderm.

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Bark of mature Mango (Mangifera India)

Japanese Maple bark

Bark of Leucadendron argenteum

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Bark of a Pine tree.

Lenticels
- Within the periderm are lenticels, which form during the production of the first periderm layer. - Since there are living cells within the cambium layers that need to exchange gases during metabolism. - As the bark develops, new lenticels are formed within the cracks of the cork layers.

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Lenticels on Prunes

Lenticels on apples.

The dark horizontal lines on Silver bark are the lenticels.

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Uses:
- Cork can contain antiseptics like tannins, that protect against fungal and bacterial attacks. - as a cork products: canoes, as the drainage layer in roofs, shoes, backpacks.. etc. - The bark of some trees is edible; pine bread (innermost layer of pine bark), large sheets bark eaten fresh, dried or roasted. . - Bark contains strong fibres known as bast

Backpack made of birch bark.

Prof. Adel Khattab