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NERVOUS SYSTEM
- it is a biological organ system of a multi-cellular organisms that monitor and maintain a constant internal environment as well as monitor and respond to an external environment.
- it is usually integrated with the endocrine system Three basic functions are performed by nervous systems: 1. Receive sensory input from internal and external environments
WHAT IS A SYNAPSE?
- junction of neural information between a nerve cell and another cell through the transfer of neurotransmitters
WHAT IS A NEUROTRANSMITTER?
- Neurotransmitters are endogenous (derived from within) chemicals that transmit signals from a neuron to a target cell.
- A neurotransmitter may be excitatory or inhibitory.
4. GABA (gamma aminobutyric acid) Lowers arousal level(inhibitory): an amino acid; lacking in people having ADHD
5.Endorphin: Pain-relieving effect:neuropeptide
TRIVIA
Parkinson's disease has a deficiency of the neurotransmitter dopamine. Progressive death of brain cells increases this deficit, causing tremors, rigidity and unstable posture. L-dopa is a chemical related to dopamine that eases some of the symptoms (by acting as a substitute neurotransmitter) but cannot reverse the progression of the disease. The bacterium Clostridium tetani produces a toxin that prevents the release of GABA. GABA is important in control of skeletal muscles. Without this control chemical, regulation of muscle contraction is lost; it can be fatal when it effects the muscles used in breathing.
Clostridium botulinum produces a toxin found in improperly canned foods. This toxin causes the progressive relaxation of muscles, and can be fatal. A wide range of drugs also operate in the synapses: cocaine, LSD, caffeine, and insecticides.
CEREBRUM
Uppermost and most expanded structure of the neural tube.
Outer layer is the gray matter called the cerebral cortex and beneath is the white matter composed mostly of myelinated fibers.
The two cerebral hemispheres are joined together by the largest band of comissural fibers/nerve fibers called the corpus callosum
- which would consist of - consisting of the sympathetic nervous the cranial nerves and system and spinal nerves parasympathetic nervous system.
Example: EYES IN DARK ROOM is to sympathetic, EYES IN BRIGHT LIGHT is to parasympathetic. HOW?
Question: How about in the state of homeostasis?
Is it possible that the 2 systems work/complement each other?
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
i. The endocrine system is a collection of glands that secrete chemical messages we call hormones. ii. These signals are passed through the blood to arrive at a target organ, which has cells possessing the appropriate receptor. iii. The roles of hormones is selecting target cells and delivering the hormonal message. iv. Hormones are grouped into three classes based on their structure: 1. steroids 2. peptides 3. amines
STEROIDS
Testes (Male)
- testoserone responsible for the production of male secondary sex characteristics.
Ovaries (female)
- estrogen responsible for the appearance of female secondary characteristics
- progesterone responsible for the thickening of uterine wall in preparation for pregnancy and childbirth
The posterior pituitary stores and releases hormones into the blood. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and oxytocin are produced in the hypothalamus and transported by axons to the posterior pituitary where they are dumped into the blood. ADH controls water balance in the body and blood pressure. Oxytocin is a small peptide hormone that stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth.
Anterior Pituitary
Growth hormone (GH) is a peptide anterior pituitary hormone essential for growth. GH-releasing hormone stimulates release of GH. GHinhibiting hormone suppresses the release of GH. The hypothalamus maintains homeostatic levels of GH. Cells under the action of GH increase in size (hypertrophy) and number (hyperplasia). GH also causes increase in bone length and thickness by deposition of cartilage at the ends of bones. During adolescence, sex hormones cause replacement of cartilage by bone, halting further bone growth even though GH is still present. Too little or two much GH can cause dwarfism or gigantism, respectively.
Hypothalamus receptors monitor blood levels of thyroid hormones. Low blood levels of Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) cause the release of TSH-releasing hormone from the hypothalamus, which in turn causes the release of TSH from the anterior pituitary. TSH travels to the thyroid where it promotes production of thyroid hormones, which in turn regulate metabolic rates and body temperatures.
The Pancreas
The pancreas contains exocrine cells that secrete digestive enzymes into the small intestine and clusters of endocrine cells (the pancreatic islets). The islets secrete the hormones insulin and glucagon, which regulate blood glucose levels.
After a meal, blood glucose levels rise, prompting the release of insulin, which causes cells to take up glucose, and liver and skeletal muscle cells to form the carbohydrate glycogen. As glucose levels in the blood fall, further insulin production is inhibited. Glucagon causes the breakdown of glycogen into glucose, which in turn is released into the blood to maintain glucose levels within a homeostatic range. Glucagon production is stimulated when blood glucose levels fall, and inhibited when they rise.
SENSORY PROCESS
STIMULUS
- threshold/minimal
RECEPTOR
- exteroreceptors found in the surface found in the superficial layer of the skin e.g. teloreceptors (distance: vision, audition, olfaction), contact receptor (needs direct contact: gustation and cutaneous) - proprioceptors founds in muscles
- subminimal
Sensory Processes
VISUAL SENSE
AUDITORY SENSE
OLFACTORY SENSE
GUSTATORY SENSE CUTANEOUS SENSE/ SOMATOSENSATION/ TACTILE
VISUAL SENSE
- Stimulus is to LIGHT RAYS; Receptor is to EYES
- Light rays are in the form of visible spectrum such as the ROYGBIV.
- Within the Retina lies the rods and cones that act as specific receptors for the sense of sight. - At the center of the retina lies the fovea consisting 100% cons and it is the point of clearest vision.
- For us to see, therefore, there must be a stimulus; in this case, light rays that will excite the receptor consisting of the rods and cones of the retina, the optic nerve that will transmit the visual impulses, and the primary visual center in the cerebral cortex for the perception of the stimulus.
Auditory Sense
- Stimulus is to SOUND WAVES; receptor is to COCHLEA.
- Sound waves emanate from vibrating source. - Within the cochlea is the organ of corti that act as the specific receptor for the sense of hearing. - Once the organ of corti are stimulated by sound waves, transduction occurs. This means that the excitation of the receptor leads to the generation of the nerve impulse. The nerve impulse generated are then transmitted by the auditory nerve to the temporal lobes of the cerebral cortex, where the primary auditory center is located for the perception of the sound.
OLFACTORY SENSE
- Stimulus is to CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES IN GASEOUS STATE; receptors is to OLFACTORY NERVES.
- the excitation of the olfactory cells leads to the generation of the neural impulses that are then transmitted by the olfactory nerve to the olfactory center located at the temporal lobe for the perception of odor.
GUSTATORY SENSE
- Stimulus is to CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES IN LIQUID FORM; receptor is to TONGUE.
- within the tongue are the taste buds (papillae) that serve as the specific receptor for the sense of taste. - as the papillae are stimulated, nerve impulses were generated and transmitted by the facial nerve and the glassopharyngeal nerve to the gustatory center in the cerebral cortex for the perception of flavor. - four primary taste qualities; sweet, sour, bitter, salty.
Cutaneous Sense/Somatosensation
Stimulus is to mechanical energy; receptor is to cospuscles and endings.
Meissner's corpuscle are receptors for light touch.
Peritrichila endings are receptors found in the hairy regions of the body.
Pacinian cospuscle are receptors for any pressure sensation and is located at the deeper layer of the skin. Krause's corpuscle are receptors for cold sensations Ruffinian endings are receptors for warm sensations located at the deeper layer of the skin. Parietal lobe is the area in the cerebral cortex for the perception of the touch sensation.