ulglLal lnformaLlon

ulglLal lnformaLlon
W An effecLlve communlcaLlons sysLem requlres
an undersLandlng of Lhe elecLronlcs of Lhe
LransmlLLer ampllflers anLennas recelver and
assoclaLed hardware along wlLh Lhe
lnformaLlon LhaL Lhe sysLem ls deslgned Lo
carry
W ln dlglLal communlcaLlons Lhe slgnal LhaL
represenL lnformaLlon are resLrlcLed Lo a
speclflc llmlLed group of values
W 1hls seL of values can be used Lo represenL
compleLely and falLhfully any lnformaLlon
slgnal
Lx Alphanumerlc characLers
W 1he advanLages of dlglLal slgnals are Lhelr
ablllLy Lo provlde vlrLually errorfree resulLs
and Lhe poLenLlal for slgnal lmprovemenL
W 1he converslon process ls Lhe brldge LhaL llnks
Lhe analog slgnal Lo Lhe dlglLal world
W 1hls process provldes Lhe requlred accuracy
and raLe aL whlch Lhe analog slgnal ls
converLed Lo lLs dlglLal equlvalenLs
onverslon facLors requlred Lhe
followlng
W 8andwldLh of Lhe analog slgnal
W 8andwldLh of Lhe sysLem
W number of dlglLal symbols avallable Lo convey
lnformaLlon
W LengLh of Llme avallable for Lransmlsslon
lnformaLlon slgnals can be dlvlded lnLo
Lwo ma[or caLegorles
W Analog
W ulglLal
Analog Slgnal
W Analog slgnal only have any value wlLhln Lhe
LoLal ampllLude phase of frequency range
Lx 0 Lo 1 v o Lo 10 v 1 Lo 1 v
Analog Slgnal
W 1he analog slgnal represenLs a varylng physlcal
quanLlLy such as volLage volce LemperaLure
pressure or even vldeo lnLenslLy
ulglLal Slgnal
W A dlglLal slgnal ls a physlcal slgnal LhaL ls a
represenLaLlon of a sequence of dlscreLe
values (a quanLlfled dlscreLeLlme slgnal) for
example of an arblLrary blL sLream or of
a dlglLlzed(sampled and analogLodlglLal
converLed) analog slgnal
W nolse ls a consLanL and unavoldable concern
ln communlcaLlons Lven when Lhe slgnal ls
relaLlvely sLrong nolse affecLs Lhe accuracy of
Lhe slgnal
Lx 1he recelved 100mv was a 99mv slgnal havlng
a 1mv of nolse
W ln dlglLal slgnal ln conLrasL provldes a large
amounL of lmmunlLy Lo Lhe effecLs Lo nolse
because of Lhe relaLlvely wlde gaps beLween
Lhe allowable values
Lx A slgnal 12v ls mosL llkely really a 1v slgnal
ulglLal SpeclflcaLlons
ulglLal SpeclflcaLlons
W 1he relaLlonshlp beLween analog slgnals and
Lhelr dlglLal equlvalenLs ls lmporLanL Lo Lhe
overall performances of a sysLem
W lacLors LhaL deLermlne Lhe relaLlonshlp
beLween an analog and lLs correspondlng
dlglLal value
W Accuracy
W 8esoluLlon
Accuracy
W lL ls how perfecL and correcL Lhe dlglLal
equlvalenL of Lhe orlglnal analog value ls when
compared Lo oLher beLLer"sLandard
Lx 1emperaLure 100 lnLo 30
Lx LengLh 10 lnches lnLo 93 lnches
W SomeLlmes lnaccuracy ls accepLable
9roblem
W An analog Lo dlglLal converLer (Au) has an
lnaccuracy of 2 WhaL ls Lhe posslble range
of values lL wlll deLermlne when Lhe analog
slgnal value ls 4v?
4 x 2 008 4 008 392 392v Lo 408v
4 + 008 408
8esoluLlon
W lL shows how flne Lhe gradlaLlons of Lhe dlglLal
values are or lnLo how many dlsLlncL values
Lhe overall slgnal span has been dlvlded
Lx Pow many dlvlslons LhaL Lhe analogLodlglLal
converslon process uses
0 Lo 1v analog slgnal
;uanLlflcaLlon Lrror
W lL ls used Lo descrlbe LhaL a dlglLal value
corresponds Lo a dlsLlncL span of analog
slgnal
W 1o reduce Lhe quanLlflcaLlon error more
dlvlslons (hlgher resoluLlon) are used Lo
represenL Lhe analog value
uynamlc 8ange
W lL ls Lhe raLlo of Lhe largesL slgnal value LhaL
can be expressed compared Lo Lhe smallesL
slgnal value
W WhaL ls Lhe u8(d8) of a 10 blL converLer?
6 x 10 60 d8
W A 10v slgnal musL be resolved 10 1mv WhaL ls
Lhe u8(d8) of Lhe sysLem? Pow many blLs are
needed Lo represenL lL?
W lnLo how many dlvlslons does 14blL
converslon dlvlde an analog slgnal?
2
14
16284
2
13
8192
LnLropy
LnLropy
W ln communlcaLlon model Lhe unlLs of
Lransmlsslons are called messages usually
consLrucLed from an alphabeL/alphanumerlc
of n symbols ()
W x
`1
x
2
x
n
each wlLh lLs correspondlng
probablllLy of Lransmlsslon
x each symbol
Px quanLlLy (measure of lnformaLlon)
W As enLropy quanLlfles Lhe uncerLalnLy lnvolved
ln a random varlables
Lx oln fllp less enLropy
Lx 8oll of dle more enLropy
enLropy unlLs blLs/sec blLs/symbol
blLs/message unlLless
LnLropy wlLh same probablllLy
LnLropy wlLh dlfferenL probablllLy
W lf Lhe probablllLy of occurrence of each symbol
ls noL Lhe same Lhe source enLropy ls
W Lx lf we LransmlL a sequence of leLLers A 8
u L and l wlLh probablllLles of Z x 1/16
1/16 1/16 and 1/16 flnd Lhe enLropy for Lhls
sysLem
8aLe of flow or Lhe lnformaLlon 8aLe (8)
W Assume LhaL a source can send any one of Lhe
number of message aL raLe r messages per
second
8 rP
8 lnformaLlon raLe (bps)
r message raLe(message/sec)
P enLropy ln blLs/message
W A communlcaLlon sysLem conslsLs of slx
posslble messages wlLh probablllLles of x x
1/8 1/8 1/8 1/8 respecLlvely were senL aL 2
messages/sec llnd Lhe lnformaLlon raLe
hannel apaclLy ln nolse LffecL
W Shannon lnLroduces Lhe channel capaclLy
W As Lhe lnformaLlon raLe lncreases Lhe number
of error per second wlll also lncrease
Where ls Lhe channel capaclLy(bps)
8 ls Lhe bandwldLh of Lhe channel (Pz)
(s/n) ls he slgnal Lo nolse raLlo
W lor a sLandard volce band communlcaLlon
channel wlLh a slgnal Lo nolse power raLlo of
1000 (30d8) and a bandwldLh of 27 kPz flnd
Lhe Shannon llmlL for lnformaLlon capclLy
W 1he lnformaLlon ln communlcaLlon sysLem ls
Lhe facL or lnLelllgence or can be a daLa/slgnal
or ln a form of characLers (ASll) A
quanLlLaLlve measure of Lhe conLenL of
lnformaLlon speclflcally a numerlcal quanLlLy
LhaL measures Lhe uncerLalnLy ln Lhe ouLcome
of an experlmenL or random evenL
More lnformaLlon means less predlcLable
Less lnformaLlon means more predlcLable
W 1he lmporLanL concepL ln dlglLal/daLa or even
analog communlcaLlon ls LhaL Lhe amounL of
lnformaLlon LhaL can be LransmlLLed ls
proporLlonal Lo Lhe bandwldLh of Lhe
communlcaLlons channel and Lhe Llme of
Lransmlsslon"
W 1he greaLer Lhe bandwldLh Lhe more
lnformaLlon LhaL can be LransmlLLed ln a glven
Llme
ParLley's Law
ParLley's Law
W 1he same amounL of lnformaLlon can be send
over a narrower channel buL lL wlll slmply
Lake longer
W 1he channel capaclLy ls Lwlce Lhe channel
bandwldLh
28
hannel capaclLy (bps)
8 channel bandwldLh (Pz)
Lxample
W WhaL ls Lhe channel capaclLy of a 10 kPz
channel 8andwldLh?
28
2(10kPz)
20 kbps
laude Shannon
W Shannon's source codlng Lheorem 1he
cenLral paradlgm of classlcal lnformaLlon
Lheory ls Lhe englneerlng problem of Lhe
Lransmlsslon of lnformaLlon over a nolsy
channel"
W A rellable communlcaLlon ls posslbly over
nolsy channels provlded LhaL Lhe raLe of
communlcaLlon ls below a cerLaln Lhreshold
called Lhe channel capaclLy
W As Lhe process of converLlng Lhe ampllLude of
an analog slgnal Lo Lhe nearesL magnlLude
code due Lo quanLlzlng
W 1he nexL sLep ls Lo dlvlde Lhls ampllLude range
lnLo a llmlLed number of lnLervals and a
samples (ampllLude) wlLhln a cerLaln lnLerval
are asslgned wlLh Lhe same value 1hls
prlnclple ls known as Lhe ;uanLlzlng 1heorem
W Analog slgnal (brown) sample slgnal
W ulglLal slgnal (blue) quanLlzed slgnal
9M (9ulse ode ModulaLlon)
W lolded blnary codes helps Lo geL Lhe dlvlded volLage on
lLs requlred resoluLlon
W 9ulsecode modulaLlon (9M) ls a meLhod used
Lo dlglLally represenL sampled analog slgnals lL ls Lhe
sLandard form for dlglLal audlo ln compuLers and
varlous 8luray ompacL ulsc and uvu formaLs as well
as oLher uses such as dlglLal Lelephone sysLems A 9M
sLream ls a dlglLal represenLaLlon of an analog slgnal ln
whlch Lhe magnlLude of Lhe analogue slgnal ls sampled
regularly aL unlform lnLervals wlLh each sample
belng quanLlzed Lo Lhe nearesL value wlLhln a range of
dlglLal sLeps
ray ode/8eflecLed ode
W lnLroduced by lrank ray (1947)
W unwelghLed code (does noL follow Lhe arlLhmeLlc code)
W ood for error deLecLlon/correcLlon
W lL ls a blnary numeral sysLem where Lwo successlve
values dlffer ln only one blL
W 1he reflecLed blnary code was orlglnally deslgned Lo
prevenL spurlous ouLpuL from elecLromechanlcal
swlLches 1oday ray codes are wldely used Lo
faclllLaLe error correcLlon ln dlglLal communlcaLlons
such as dlglLal LerresLrlal Lelevlslon and some cable
1v sysLems
onverslon
W 8lnary Lo ray ode
8eLaln Lhe mosL slgnlflcanL blL
lrom lefL Lo rlghL add each ad[acenL palr of
blnary code boLs Lo geL Lhe nexL ray code blL
dlscardlng carrles
W ray ode Lo 8lnary
8eLaln Lhe mosL slgnlflcanL blL
lrom lefL Lo rlghL add each blnary code blL
generaLed Lo Lhe ray ode blL ln Lhe nexL
poslLlon dlscardlng carrlers
lorward Lrror orrecLlon
W 1he purpose of lL ls Lo lmprove Lhe capaclLy
of a channel by addlng some carefully
deslgned redundanL lnformaLlon Lo Lhe daLa
belng LransmlLLed Lhrough Lhe channel
W 1he process of addlng Lhls redundanL
lnformaLlon ls known as channel codlng
W 1wo ma[or forms of channel codlng
convoluLlonal codlng and block codlng
W onvoluLlonal codlng operaLes on serlal daLa one
or a few blLs aL a Llme
W 8lock codes operaLes on relaLlvely large (Lyplcally
up Lo a couple of hundred byLes) message blocks
W hecksums ls a form of redundancy check used
Lo proLecL daLa by deLecLlng errors ln daLa LhaL
are senL Lhrough and works y addlng up Lhe baslc
componenL of a message hecksums serve as
8
lour 9rlmary 1ypes of hecksums
W Slngle preclslon
W uouble preclslon
W Poney well
W 8esldue
Slngle preclslon
W 9erforms a blnary addlLlon of each nbl daLa
word ln Lhe message block
W Any carry ls overflowed durlng Lhe addlLlon
process ls lgnored
W 1he resulLanL checksum ls also nblLs ln lengLh
W n ls Lhe slze of Lhe daLa word ln Lhe message
block
uouble preclslon
W lL exLends Lhe compuLed checksum Lo 2n blLs
ln lengLh
Poneywell hecksums
W lL ls Lhe alLernaLlve of Lhe double preclslon
checksum
W lLs lengLh ls also 2n blLs
W lL ls based on Lhe lnLerleavlng of consecuLlve
daLa word Lo form double lengLh word
8educe hecksum
W lL adds n blLs and performs wrapplng around
Llne Lncodlng/ 8aseband Slgnalllng
W ulglLal baseband modulaLlon code chosen for use
wlLhln a communlcaLlon sysLem for Lransmlsslon
purposes lL ls used for dlglLal daLa LransporL
W lL conslsLs of represenLlng Lhe dlglLal slgnal LhaL ls
opLlmally Luned for Lhe speclflc properLy of Lhe
physlcal channel
W 1he waveform paLLern of volLage or currenL used
Lo represenL Lhe 1's and 0's of a dlglLal slgnal on a
Lransmlsslon llnk
Pammlng ode
W When daLa ls LransmlLLed from one locaLlon Lo
anoLher Lhere ls always LhaL an error may occur
1here are rellable Lechnlques LhaL can be used Lo
encode daLa so LhaL Lhe error can be deLecLed
and correcLed
W Pammlng code ls a slmple errordeLecLlon
correcLlon Lechnlque LhaL ldenLlfy slngle blL error
and correcL LhaL error by compuLlng lLs Pammlng
blLs
W 1he key Lo Lhe Pammlng code ls Lhe use of exLra
parlLy blLs Lo allow Lhe ldenLlflcaLlon of a slngle
error