All people engage in categorization. Categorization is classifying or sorting of perceived information into distinct group.

. Categorization is useful because it help reduce uncertainty, increase the accuracy of prediction about others, and maintain self-esteem. The negative side of categorization is ignoring individual element of the person, and minimizes in-group differences while maximizing out-group differences.

The kind of information upon which people from categories are (i) conspicuous differences and similarities, (ii) familiarity, (iii) functional important, (iv) maximizing the relative advantage of the ingroup, (v) projection, (vi) similarity, (vii) desirable/undesirable qualities, (viii) salient information.

Jim: Hi (Thinks to himself Man, hes so short, hes just like all the other Asian Ive seen.) [Type of categorization=conspicuous differences] Akira: Hi. Im Akira (Thinks to himself Wow, hes pretty tall.) [Type of categorization=conspicuous differences] Jim: Im Jim, are you student here (Thinks to himself Hes probable a math major.) [Type of categorization= familiarity] Akira: Yes (Thinks to himselfHe probably thinks Im Chinese.) [Type of categorization= familiarity] Jim: Are you from Japan. (Thinks to himself He probably wonders if I drive a Honda. I wonder if he realizes how many Americans are unemployed because of all the imported Japanese cars.) [Type of categorization= projection] Akira: Yes, I am. (Thinks to himself What will he ask me now. These Americans are so impolite.) [Type of categorization= salient information]

Stereotypes as a subset of categorizing and involving the attribution of characteristics of a group to an individual based on the individuals membership in the group. Stereotypes as cognitive representation of another group that influence ones feelings about the group. A generalization about a group of people. Tell us what people in that category are like. Stereotyping involves members of one group attributing characteristics to members of another group. These attributions carry a positive or negative evaluation.

Differences among the members of the group are not taken into account (overestimate the association between group membership and members traits) Influence the way we process information. Making errors in the interpretation of others behavior. Remember more favorable information about in-groups and more unfavorable information about out-groups. Distort or bias our information processing.

The difficulties arise when stereotypes carry a negative valence and are used to overgeneralizes negative traits to an entire group of people when, in reality, few members of the group actually possess such traits. Stereotyping can lead to ethnocentrism, prejudice, and discrimination.

Ethnocentrism is a tendency to place ones own group or ethnicity in a position of centrality and worth while creating negative attitudes and behaviors towards other groups. Ethnocentrism leads to self-centered dialogue where communicators use their own cultural standards to evaluate and communicate with others. Ethnocentric attitudes are reflected in linguistic diversity and create communicative distance between communicator (indifference, avoidance, disparagement).

I apply my values when judging people who are different I see people who are similar to me as virtuous I do not cooperate with people who are different I prefer to associate with people who are like me I do not trust people who are different

Prejudices is negative attitudes towards others based on faculty and inflexible stereotype. Prejudice involves making a prejudgment based on membership in a category. Improving our intercultural interaction Change in attitude toward the group as a whole Increased complexity of intergroup perceptions Decategorization