Endocrine System Introduction

Dr. Othman Al-Shboul Department of Physiology

Types of glands

Exocrine glands have channels or ducts, that carry their secretions to specific locations.
(female mammary gland, tear glands, sweat glands, sebaceous glands, salivary glands)

Endocrine glands dont have ducts. They secrete hormones directly into bloodstream.

Classes of chemical messengers

Neurotransmitters: released by axon terminals of neurons into the synaptic junctions and act locally to control nerve cell functions. Endocrine hormones: released by glands or specialized cells into the circulating blood and influence the function of cells at another location. Neuroendocrine hormones: secreted by neurons into the circulating blood and influence the function of cells at another location in the body.

Classes of chemical messengers

Paracrines: secreted by cells into the extracellular fluid and effect neighboring cells of different type. Autocrines: secreted by cells into the extracellular fluid and affect the function of the same cells that produced them.

Endocrine glands
Ductless endocrine glands secret hormones into blood Only specific target cells can respond to each hormone (specific receptors)

Hormone classes
i. Hydrophilic (peptide hormones and catecholamines)
o o o Water soluble Surface membrane receptors Activate 2nd -messenger systems (cAMP, Ca++)

Hydrophilic Hormone

2nd Messenger

Hormone classes
ii. Lipophilic (steroid hormones and thyroid hormone)
o o o Lipid soluble Cytoplasmic/nuclear receptors Affect gene transcription
Lipophilic Hormone

Gene Transcription
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Hormone plasma levels

Balance between:
Rate of secretion & rate of excretion

Mechanisms controlling hormone secretion

1. Negative-feedback control 2. Neuroendocrine reflexes, and

3. Diurnal (circadian) rhythms

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1. Negative-feedback control
To maintain the plasma concentration of a hormone at a given level

After stimulus causes release of the hormone ,The hormone (or its products) tend to suppress its further release.

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2. Neuroendocrine reflexes
Hypothalamus

To produce a sudden increase in hormone secretion

Pituitary
Prolactin & Oxytocin

Sensory stimulus (e.g., suckling) evokes a neural pathway that leads to secretion of a hormone

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3. Diurnal (circadian) rhythms

Repetitive oscillations in hormone levels that are very regular and cycle once every 24 hours Example, cortisol secretion, high in the early morning and low at evening

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Hormone Excretion
i. Hydrophilic hormones:

o Dissolved in plasma, not bound to plasma proteins o Rapidly eliminated from circulation through kidney or liver, short half life.

ii.

Lipophilic hormones:

o Circulate in the blood mainly bound to plasma proteins. o Binding slows hormone clearance from plasma, long half life

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Hormone Excretion
Ways of hormone inactivation:
1- Metabolic destruction by the tissues (by enzymes).

2- Binding with the tissues.

3- Excretion by the liver into the bile (mainly lipophilic hormones). 4- Excretion by the kidney into the urine (mainly hydrophilic hormones).

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Hormone-hormone interaction
Permissiveness:
One hormone increases the effectiveness of another hormone E.g., thyroid hormone increases the receptors for epinephrine

Synergism:
The actions of several hormones are complementary and their combined effect is greater than the sum of their separate effects.

Antagonism:
one hormone reduces the effectiveness of another hormone. E.g., progesterone & estrogen
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Hypothalamus & Pituitary

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The Pituitary Gland (Hypophysis)

Lies in sella turcica, a bony cavity at the base of the brain. Connected to the hypothalamus by the pituitary stalk (or infundibulum).

Two Distinct Parts: * The Anterior lobe (adenohypophysis) * The Posterior lobe (neurohypophysis)
glandular epithelial tissue nervous tissue

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Hypothalamic-pituitary relationship
Hypothalamus-anterior pituitary vascular link Hypothalamus-posterior pituitary neural link

Factors (or hormones) released from hypothalamus reach anterior pituitary via circulation

Axons from hypothalamus extend into posterior pituitary

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Posterior Pituitary Hormones

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The hypothalamus and posterior pituitary

Posterior pituitary gland does not synthesize hormones

Posterior pituitary gland stores & releases hormones that are generated & secreted from hypothalamus
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Posterior pituitary hormones

1. VASOPRESSIN (antidiuretic hormone, ADH) 2. OXYTOCIN

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Vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone, ADH)

It enhances the retention of H2O by the kidneys (an antidiuretic effect), more important It causes contraction of arteriolar smooth muscle (a vessel pressor effect, increasing resistance)

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Oxytocin
Stimulates contraction of the uterine smooth muscle to help expel the infant during childbirth

Promotes ejection of the milk from the mammary glands (breasts) during breast-feeding

Oxytocin is concerned with releasing or ejection of milk, while prolactin (from the anterior pituitary) is concerned with synthesis & production of milk.

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Anterior pituitary hormones

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Anterior pituitary hormones

All anterior pituitary hormones are tropins Tropins or tropic hormones: hormones that regulate the hormone secretions of target endocrine tissues. trophic means feed, tropic means attracted to:
High [hormone] causes target organ to hypertrophy. Low [hormone] causes target organ to atrophy.

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Anterior pituitary hormones

Different cell populations within the anterior pituitary secrete six major peptide hormones: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Growth hormone (GH, somatotropin) Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH, thyrotropin) Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH, adrenocorticotropin) Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) Luteinizing hormone (LH) Prolactin (PRL).

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Functions of the anterior pituitary hormones

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Hypothalamic hormones or factors

Secretion by the anterior pituitary is controlled by hormones called hypothalamic releasing and hypothalamic inhibitory hormones (or factors) transported through hypothalamic-hypophysial portal vessels Hypothalamus receives signals from many sources in the nervous system & in turn controls the secretion the pituitary hormones

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Hypothalamic-hypophyseal portal system

Venous blood flows directly from one capillary bed through a connecting vessel to another capillary bed (without passing through the heart).

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Hierarchic chain of command and negative feedback in endocrine control.

-ve feedback

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Growth Hormone (GH)

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Growth Hormone (GH)

Actions of GH:
i. Metabolic actions

ii. Growth-promoting actions on:

Soft tissues Skeleton

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Actions of GH
i. Metabolic actions:
Breakdown of triglyceride fat stored in adipose tissue increased blood f.a levels Decreases glucose uptake by muscles increases blood glucose levels Muscles use f.a for energy, reserving glucose for nervous tissue
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2. Growth-promoting actions on soft tissues

Increasing the number of cells (hyperplasia)
stimulating cell division preventing apoptosis

Increasing the size of cells (hypertrophy)

stimulates synthesis of proteins inhibits protein degradation promotes the uptake of amino acids by cells
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3. Growth-promoting actions on skeleton (bone) 1. Growth in bone thickness 2. Growth in bone length

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Bone Structure
Cells + Extracellular organic matrix + Salts

Cells:
Osteoblasts: produce the organic matrix Osteoclasts: dissolve the bony tissue

Organic matrix:
Collagen fibers (tensile strength of bone)

Salts:
Precipitates of calcium phosphate crystals (compressional strength)
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Growth in thickness
Adding new bone on top of the outer surface of already existing bone by osteoblasts
Dissolve the bony tissue on the inner surface next to the marrow cavity by osteclasts

Bone Thickness

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Growth in length
At epiphyseal plate: chondrocytes multiply, then osteoblasts replace some of them & start bone formation Eventually all the plate is formed of only bone (after puberty), and no more lengthening

Hyaline cartilage in growing bone (before puberty) Plate/line (bone) in adults (after puberty)

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Mature, non-growing bone

Osteoblasts become trapped within a calcified matrix. The entrapped osteoblasts, now called osteocytes, not dealing with bone formation but involved in the hormonally regulated exchange of calcium between bone and the blood

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Somatomedins
Growth hormone exerts its growth-promoting effects indirectly by stimulating somatomedins. Somatomedins are referred to as insulin-like growth factors (IGF) The major source of circulating IGF is the liver IGF synthesis is stimulated by GH IGF is also produced locally by most other tissues.
Growth
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Increases after the onset of deep sleep

Control of growth hormone secretion

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Abnormal growth-hormone secretion

GH Hyposecretion (deficiency)
GH Hypersecretion (excess)

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Growth hormone deficiency

In a child results in dwarfism:
short stature poorly developed muscles (reduced muscle-protein synthesis) excess subcutaneous fat (less fat mobilization).

In adulthood ; relatively few symptoms:

reduced skeletal muscle mass and strength (less muscle protein) decreased bone density (less osteoblast activity during ongoing bone remodeling).

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Growth hormone excess

In childhood before the epiphyseal plates close, gigantism :
rapid growth in height without distortion of body proportions.

After adolescence, epiphyseal plates close, acromegaly :

person cannot grow taller, but the bones can become thicker and the soft tissues can continue to grow
o Enlargement of bones of hands & feet. o Enlargement of membranous bones including cranium, nose, forehead bones, supraorbital ridges. o Protrusion of lower jaw. o Hunched back (kyphosis) (enlargement of vertebrae). o peripheral nerve disorders
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The END