IN THE NAME OF ALLAH THA MOST MERCIFUL AND BENIFICIENT

WHAT IS PRESSURE TRANSDUCER

A pressure transducer is a transducer that converts pressure into an analog electrical signal.

Although there are various types of pressure transducers, one of the most common is the strain-gage base transducer. The conversion of pressure into an electrical signal is achieved by the physical deformation of strain gages which are bonded into the diaphragm of the pressure transducer and wired into a Wheatstone bridge configuration. Pressure applied to the pressure transducer produces a deflection of the diaphragm which introduces strain to the gages. The strain will produce an electrical resistance change proportional to the pressure.

The Electrical Output Of Pressure Transducers

Pressure transducers are generally available with three types of electrical output; millivolt, amplified voltage and 4-20mA. Below is a summary of the outputs and when they are best used.

Millivolt Output Pressure Transducers Transducers with millivolt output are normally the most economical pressure transducers. The output of the millivolt transducer is nominally around 30mV. The actual output is directly proportional to the pressure transducer input power or excitation. If the excitation fluctuates, the output will change also. Because of this dependence on the excitation level, regulated power supplies are suggested for use with millivolt transducers. Because the output signal is so low, the transducer should not be located in an electrically noisy environment. The distances between the transducer and the readout instrument should also be kept relatively short.

Voltage Output Pressure Transducers Voltage output transducers include integral signal conditioning which provide a much higher output than a millivolt transducer. The output is normally 0-5Vdc or 0-10Vdc. Although model specific, the output of the transducer is not normally a direct function of excitation. This means unregulated power supplies are often sufficient as long as they fall within a specified power range. Because they have a higher level output these transducers are not as susceptible (sensitive) to electrical noise as millivolt transducers and can therefore be used in much more industrial environments.

4-20 mA Output Pressure Transducers These types of transducers are also known as pressure transmitters. Since a 4-20mA signal is least (smallest) affected by electrical noise and resistance in the signal wires, these transducers are best used when the signal must be transmitted long distances. It is not uncommon to use these transducers in applications where the lead wire must be 1000 feet or more.

Style Of Pressure Transducers

PC board mountable pressure transducers are generally compact economical pressure transducers designed to mount on an electrical PC board and be integrated into other products.

High Stability/High Accuracy Pressure Transducers Most pressure transducers feature an accuracy of 0.25% of full scale or higher. High stability and high accuracy pressure transducers can offer errors as low as 0.05% of full scale, depending on model. Although more expensive than general purpose transducers, they may be the only option if high precision is required.

Special Purpose Transducers OMEGA offers a variety of pressure transducers with special features. These include pressure transducers designed for pressure measurement in very high or low temperatures, submersible pressure transducers, barometric pressure transducers and pressure transducers with digital communications output or wireless outputs.

Method for manufacturing variable capacitance pressure transducers

A method for manufacturing variable capacitance pressure transducers and an intermediate article of manufacture produced in the practice of this method. In the method, a wafer (a very thin slice of a semiconductor crystal) or doped silicon or other semiconductor material has portions of the semiconductor material removed from spaced areas to form a plurality of recesses in the surface of the semiconductor material. The material is doped to enhance its electrical conductivity. A dielectric material has one of its surfaces coated with spaces areas of electrically conductive material. The semiconductor material is attached to the coated surface of the dielectric material such that the surface recesses in the semiconductor material are in alignment with the conductive areas on the dielectric material.

This produces a plurality (greater number) of electrical capacitors suitable for use as pressure transducers. The capacitance of these transducers is varied as a function of changes in one or more fluid pressures acting on the plates of each of the capacitors, one of these plates being the doped semiconductor material and the other being a conductive area on the dielectric material. Fluid pressure between the plates may be established during manufacture. The intermediate article of manufacture produced by this process may then be cut into a plurality of separate pressure transducers.

CONSTRUCTION OF PRESSURE TRANSDUCERS

The pressure devices described in this catalog use an elastic pressuresensing element acting as a prime mover for positioning an electromechanical transducer, Electromechanical transducer, any type of device that either converts an electrical signal into sound waves (as in a loudspeaker) or converts a sound wave into an electrical signal (as in the microphone). thereby providing an electrical output for a pressure input. In the low pressure ranges the sensing element is a metal capsule consisting of a pair of symmetrical concentrically-corrugated diaphragms, welded together at their outer rims to form a hollow flexible member having predictable motion when fluid or gas pressure applied internally or externally. In the high pressure ranges the sensing element is a metal Bourdon Tube, consisting of a circular tube of oval cross-section, closed at one end, so that pressure applied internally or externally causes the circular tube to partially straighten and its closed tip to move in a predictable path. In all cases the electromechanical transducer is a variable resistor, in which the moveable contact or slider is driven by the motion of the capsule or Bourdon Tube. When voltage is applied to the ends of the variable resistor, the moveable contact position appears on the output terminal as a proportionate fraction of the excitation voltage.

Whilst examining the suitability of materials used in the construction of a pressure transducer you will notice that different grades of stainless steel are used for the parts exposed to the pressure media. The choice of which stainless steel to use in a design is dependent on the required material strength, toughness, ease of manufacture, and corrosion resistance.

Pressure sensors made of phosphor bronze, beryllium copper or stainless steel are the most corrosion resistant, but generally require internal temperature compensation, in the form of a bimetallic member, to offset the change in deflection of the sensor resulting from a change in temperature. Pressure sensors made of a nickel alloy called Ni Span "C" are relatively insensitive to temperature and good resistive to corrosion generally require no internal temperature compensation.

Pressure transducer capsule

Manufacturers of measurement instrumentation which have to measure pressure inside their product often choose to integrate the signal conditioning within their own electronics. This enables the manufacturer to use a pressure transducer that has no signal conditioner or compensation electronics fitted and therefore reduces its size and cost.

Pressure Transmitters Pressure transmitters translate low-level electrical outputs from pressure sensing devices to higher-level signals that are suitable for transmission and processing. They use many different sensing technologies and can measure the pressure of liquids and/or gases. Mechanical deflection devices such as diaphragms, Bourdon tubes or bellows consist of an elastic or flexible element that is deflected mechanically by a change in pressure. Pressure transmitters can produce several types of electrical signals, including analog voltage and analog current. These output signals can be encoded via amplitude modulation (AM), frequency modulation (FM), or some other modulation scheme such as sine wave or pulse train.

APPLICATIONS OF PRESSURE SENSORS

Pressure sensors are industrial products that are typically used in order to measure gas and liquid pressures. It acts as if it is a transducer or a device that converts energy into another form. It is capable of signal generation by way of using the pressure imposed on optical, auditory, electrical and visual signals. In some instances, they are also called as transmitters, indicators or senders. Variables such as fluid flow, gas flow, water level, speed and altitude may also be measured through the aid of pressure sensors. The different types of the product vary depending on the application where it is used. They also cover measurements of pressure combustion.

Pressure sensor
A pressure sensor measures pressure, typically of gasses or liquids. Pressure is an expression of the force required to stop a fluid from expanding, and is usually stated in terms of force per unit area. A pressure sensor usually acts as a transducer; it generates a signal as a function of the pressure imposed. For the purposes of this article, such a signal is electrical. Pressure sensors are used for control and monitoring in thousands of everyday applications. Pressure sensors can also be used to indirectly measure other variables such as fluid/gas flow, speed, water level, and altitude. Pressure sensors can alternatively be called pressure transducers, pressure transmitters, pressure senders, pressure indicators and piezometers, manometers, among other names. Pressure sensors can vary drastically in technology, design, performance, application suitability and cost. There is also a category of pressure sensors that are designed to measure in a dynamic mode for capturing very high speed changes in pressure. Example applications for this type of sensor would be in the measuring of combustion pressure in an engine cylinder or in a gas turbine. These sensors are commonly manufactured out of piezoelectric materials such as quartz.

TYPES
Absolute pressure sensor This sensor measures the pressure relative to perfect vacuum pressure (0 PSI or no pressure). Atmospheric pressure, is 101.325 kPa (14.7 PSI) at sea level with reference to vacuum. Gauge pressure sensor This sensor is used in different applications because it can be calibrated to measure the pressure relative to a given atmospheric pressure at a given location. A tire pressure gauge is an example of gauge pressure indication. Vacuum pressure sensor This sensor is used to measure pressure less than the atmospheric pressure at a given location. Differential pressure sensor This sensor measures the difference between two or more pressures, for example, measuring the pressure drop across an oil filter. Differential pressure is also used to measure flow or level in pressurized vessels. Sealed pressure sensor This sensor is the same as the gauge pressure sensor except that it is previously calibrated by manufacturers to measure pressure relative to sea level pressure.

Transducer quality strain gauges are available in a variety of patterns to cover most transducer design requirements. Their rugged construction, reliability and flexibility make them suitable for highly accurate static and dynamic transducers.

Advantages of pressure Transducers Repeatability Low Hysteresis High Gauge Factors Small Size and Lightweight Low Susceptibility to Acceleration Long Term Stability High Overpressure Rating
Dynamic Response

What is Pitot Tube A pitot (pronounced) tube is a pressure measurement instrument used to measure fluid flow velocity. Basically, a pitot tube is used in wind tunnel experiments and on airplanes to measure flow speed. It's a slender (of small girth or breadth ) tube that has two holes on it. The front hole is placed in the airstream to measure the stagnation pressure. The side hole measures the static pressure. By measuring the difference between these pressures, you get the dynamic pressure, which can be used to calculate airspeed.

History The pitot tube was invented by the French engineer Henri Pitot in the early 18th century and was modified to its modern form in the mid-19th century by French scientist Henry Darcy. It is widely used to determine the airspeed of an aircraft and to measure air and gas velocities in industrial applications. The pitot tube is used to measure the local velocity at a given point in the flow stream and not the average velocity in the pipe or channel.

Theory of operation
The basic pitot tube consists of a tube pointing directly into the fluid flow. As this tube contains fluid, a pressure can be measured, the moving fluid is brought to rest (stagnates) as there is no outlet to allow flow to continue. This pressure is the stagnation pressure of the fluid, also known as the total pressure or (particularly in aviation) the pitot pressure. The measured stagnation pressure cannot of itself be used to determine the fluid velocity (airspeed in aviation). However, Bernoulli's equation states: Stagnation pressure = static pressure + dynamic pressure

The dynamic pressure, then, is the difference between the stagnation pressure and the static pressure. The static pressure is generally measured using the static ports on the side of the fuselage (the body of an Aeroplane ). The dynamic pressure is then determined using a diaphragm inside an enclosed container.

AIR DATA PITOT PROBE

Pitot tubes on aircraft commonly have heating elements called pitot heat to prevent the tube from becoming clogged with ice. Industry applications In industry, the most practical instrument to measure the velocities is the pitot tube. The pitot tube can be inserted through a small hole in the duct with the pitot connected to a U-tube water gauge or some other differential pressure gauge for determining the velocity inside the ducted wind tunnel. One use of this technique is to determine the amount of cooling that is being delivered to a room. Volume flow rate (cubic feet per min) = duct area (square feet) velocity (ft per m in) Volume flow rate (cubic meters per sec) = duct area (square meters) velocity (met ers per sec)

How can ice cause the pitot tube to malfunction (failure)? Basically, if there's a blockage of that tube, then you will get an incorrect reading for the pressure difference and your airspeed. Ice accretion (growth) on wings is a big problem, and it can also build up on a pitot tube. Pitot tubes must be calibrated to work properly, and if ice changes the shape of airflow around the tube, then it will give an incorrect reading. Why is measuring airspeed important? Planes have a certain operating envelope (outer metal), and it's dangerous to fly at too low a speed because you can stall, and it's also dangerous to fly at too high a speed because of structural reasons.

Pitot-Static tubes, which are also called Prandtl tubes, are used on aircraft as speedometers. The actual tube on the aircraft is around 10 inches (25 centimeters) long with a 1/2 inch (1 centimeter) diameter. Several small holes are drilled around the outside of the tube and a center hole is drilled down the axis of the tube. The outside holes are connected to one side of a device called a pressure transducer. The center hole in the tube is kept separate from the outside holes and is connected to the other side of the transducer. The pitot-static tube is mounted on the aircraft, or in a wind tunnel , so that the center tube is always pointed in the direction of the flow and the outside holes are perpendicular to the center tube. On some airplanes the pitot-static tube is put on a longer boom sticking out of the nose of the plane or the wing

Types Of Pitot Tubes

Difference in Static and Total Pressure Since the outside holes are perpendicular to the direction of flow, these tubes are pressurized by the local random component of the air velocity. The pressure in these tubes is the static pressure (ps) discussed in Bernoulli's equation. The center tube, however, is pointed in the direction of travel and is pressurized by both the random and the ordered air velocity. The pressure in this tube is the total pressure (pt) discussed in Bernoulli's equation. The pressure transducer measures the difference in total and static pressure which is the dynamic pressure q. measurement = q = pt - ps Solve for Velocity With the difference in pressures measured and knowing the local value of air density from pressure and temperature measurements, we can use Bernoulli's equation to give us the velocity. On the graphic, the Greek symbol rho is used for the density. In this text, we will use the letter r. Bernoulli's equation states that the static pressure plus one half the density times the velocity V squared is equal to the total pressure.

WIND TUNNELS
Aerodynamicists use wind tunnels to test models of proposed aircraft. Wind tunnels are usually designed for a specific purpose and speed range. There are special tunnels for propulsion, icing research, subsonic, supersonic, and hypersonic flight, and even full scale testing. A wind tunnel may be open and draw air from outside the tunnel into the test section and then exhaust back to the outside, or the tunnel may be closed with the air recirculation inside the tunnel. The air inside the tunnel is made to move by the fan on the far side of the tunnel. In this figure, air continuously moves counter-clockwise around the circuit, passing over the model that is mounted in the test section.

Control Rooms The wind tunnel test is controlled from a separate building called the control room. There are three main functions that are performed by teams of engineers and technicians in the control room. One team controls the operation of the wind tunnel. They set the speed of the fan and monitor conditions in the test section. Should any emergency arise, it is their job to bring the air in the tunnel to a stop as quickly and safely as possible. Another team of engineers control the aircraft model. Many models employ variable geometry or the model itself may be maneuvered during the test on its mounting. This team also monitors the operation of the diagnostic instrumentation present on the model. The third team usually performs some preliminary data reduction for the test. The size of the control room and the number of engineers and technicians present during a test is usually related to the size of the tunnel and the complexity of the model.

Wind tunnels are designed for a specific purpose and speed range and there is a wide variety of wind tunnel types and model instrumentation. The model to be tested in the wind tunnel is placed in the test section of the tunnel. The speed in the test section is determined by the design of the tunnel. The choice of speed range affects the design of the wind tunnel due to compressibility effects. For subsonic flows, the air density remains nearly constant and decreasing the cross-sectional area causes the flow to increase velocity and decrease pressure. Similarly, increasing the area causes the velocity to decrease and the pressure to increase. For a subsonic wind tunnel, the test section is placed at the end of the contraction section and upstream of the diffuser. On the fig we notice the Mach number, velocity and pressure through a subsonic wind tunnel design. The plenum is the settling chamber on a closed return tunnel, or the open room of an open return design. For supersonic flows, the air density changes in the tunnel because of compressibility. In fact, the density changes faster than the velocity by a factor of the square of the Mach number. In a supersonic flow, decreasing the cross-sectional area causes the flow to decrease in velocity and increase pressure. Similarly, increasing the area causes the velocity to increase and the pressure to decrease.

As a subsonic flow is contracted (shrunk), the velocity and Mach number increase. When the velocity reaches the speed of sound (M = 1), the flow chokes and the Mach number can not be increased beyond M = 1. We want the highest possible velocity in the test section of the wind tunnel. For a supersonic wind tunnel, we contract the flow until it chokes in the throat of a nozzle. We then diffuse the flow which increases the speed supersonically. The test section of the supersonic tunnel is placed at the end of the diffuser. From a consideration of conservation of mass for a compressible flow, we can design the test section to produce a desired velocity or Mach based on the area in the test section. Notice that in both supersonic and subsonic designs, the velocity is increased and the pressure is decreased relative to the station upstream of the test section. In a subsonic tunnel the area is contracting into the test section; in a supersonic tunnel the area is increasing.

OPEN RETURN WIND TUNNEL On the figure, we see a schematic drawing of an open return wind tunnel. This type of tunnel is also called an Eiffel tunnel, The Eiffel tunnel has an open test section. In the open return tunnel, the air that passes through the test section is gathered from the room in which the tunnel is located. The arrows on the figure denote the flow of air through the wind tunnel and around the room. The other major type of wind tunnel is the closed return tunnel, in which the air is conducted from the exit of the fan to the contraction section by a series of ducts and turning vanes.

A similar arrangement of parts is found in the open return wind tunnel, except for the turning vanes. Airflow through this tunnel is from right to left. The largest part, at the right of the tunnel, is called the bellmouth. For this tunnel, the flow straighteners are placed at the

entrance to the bellmouth as shown. The flow is constricted and the flow speed is increased through the bellmouth. The flow then enters the test section shown. A tufted model of an F-5 fighter plane is shown in the test section. Air is drawn over the model by a fan located at the far left of the tunnel. In this photo, one can see the motor that drives the fan, an exit screen to protect the user, and the diffuser from the test section to the tunnel exit.

The amount of air in the tunnel is a constant, and we can use the conservation of mass to relate local speed in the tunnel to the crosssectional area. At every point in the tunnel, the velocity V times the air density rho times the area A is a constant. Decreasing the area increases the velocity in a subsonic wind tunnel. We want the highest velocity in the test section and that is why the test section of the
tunnel is designed to have the smallest cross-section.

On the figure, we show a schematic drawing of an closed return wind tunnel. This type of tunnel is also called an Prandtl tunnel. In the closed return tunnel, air is conducted from the exit of the test section back to the fan by a series of turning vanes. Exiting the fan, the air is returned to the contraction section and back through the test section. Air is continuously circulated through the duct work of the closed return tunnel. The arrows on the figure denote the flow of air through the wind tunnel. Closed return tunnels may operate sub sonically, as shown in the figure, or supersonically. Supersonic closed return tunnels are more complex than subsonic tunnels. To prevent condensation in the test section because of low pressure, the air entering the tunnel is often passed over a dryer bed. There is usually an additional throat placed in the tunnel downstream of the test section to shock down the supersonic flow to subsonic.

The tunnel shown in the figure is a low-speed closed tunnel which we are viewing from above. We can use this figure to study the various parts of a wind tunnel. The air inside the tunnel is made to move by the fan on the far side of the tunnel. In this figure, air moves counter-clockwise around the circuit. The fan is turned by a large, electrically-powered drive motor. Leaving the fan, the air is turned in the corners by turning vanes. The turning vanes are a cascade of airfoils which minimize the total pressure loss through the corners. Leaving the corner at the upper left of the figure, the air passes through flow straightner before entering the test section. The purpose of the flow straightner is to make the flow in the test section as uniform as possible. The test section is the part of the wind tunnel in which the model is placed. For low speed tunnel operation, the test section has the smallest cross-sectional area and the highest velocity within the tunnel. Leaving the test section, the air enters the diffuser where it is expanded and slowed before returning to the fan. Again, the diffuser is employed to minimize losses in the tunnel. For this closed circuit wind tunnel, there are two more corners with turning vanes before the air is brought back to the fan.

There are several different methods for mounting the model inside the test section. The choice of mounting system in a particular wind tunnel is often driven by the type of balance being employed. For an external balance, measuring devices are located outside of the model and the tunnel. For an external balance, the mount must transmit the aerodynamic loads on the model to the external balance, and hold the model securely at the desired flight condition of angle of attack and angle of yaw. For an internal balance, the measuring devices are located inside the model. At the upper right, we have a three strut mount that connects to the model near both wing tips and at the aft end. The three strut mount is used most often with external balances. With three movable struts, the angle of attack and roll angle can be accurately set

Lift vs. Angle of Attack

As the angle of attack increases, so should the lift - until a certain point (the stall angle of attack).

Lift
Angle of attack (a): angle between flow and chord line. Chord line: straight line between most forward and most aft points a a

Flow

Lift vs. Velocity

As the velocity (speed) increases, so should the lift.

Note: Keep the angle of attack constant. The greater the angle (prior to stall) the greater the change in lift.

Lift

Velocity (Speed)

TShe model is inclined to the wind axes by two angles. Alpha (the angle in red) is the angle of attack, and psi (the angle in black) is the angle of yaw. We can relate the measurements in the body axes to the wind axes by the following equations. Let's let A = the measured axial force, N be the measured normal force, S be the measured side force in the body axes. Similarly let AM be the moment about the axial axis, NM be the moment about the normal axis, and SM be the moment about the side aixs. The lift L is given by: L = N cos(alpha) - A sin(alpha) The drag D is given by: D = A cos(alpha) cos (psi) - N sin(alpha) cos (psi) The crosswind force C is: C = S cos(psi) + A cos(alpha) sin(psi) - N sin(alpha) sin(psi)