BACTERIAL GENETICS

Rainelda Uy-Veloso, M.D.

 GENETICS:

= science of heredity
= study of what genes are, how they carry
information, how they are replicated
and
passed to subsequent generations of
cells, and how the expression of their
information
within an organism determines the
particular
characteristics of that organism

* ability to maintain viability, adapt, multiply and

cause
disease is founded in Genetics
Nucleic acid structure and organization:

= where hereditary information resides

= 2 major classes:
1. DNA
= most common macromolecule
that
encodes genetic information
2. RNA
= may encode genetic information
for
various viruses
= other forms play an essential
role in
several genetic process
Nucleotide structure and sequence:
= DNA consists of deoxyribose sugars connected by
phosphodiester bonds
= 4 bases include:
a) 2 purines: adenine (A) and guanine (G)
b) 2 pyramidine: cytosine (C) and thymidine
(T)

* in RNA, uracil replaces thymidine

Sugar, phosphate and base, form a single unit →

NUCLEOTIDE

= Order of bases along a DNA or RNA strand is

known as
BASE SEQUENCE
→ provides the information that specifies the
DNA molecular structure:

= composed of two nucleotide

polymers
= the strands are also
complementary
as the A base of one strand
A T always binds via 2 hydrogen
bond to the T base of the
other G C
A T strand and vice versa.
Likewise
C G G base of one strand always
binds by 3 hydrogen bonds
to
the C base of the other and
vice
2 major classes of Nucleic Acids

1. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

= most common macromolecule that encodes
genetic
information
= intact DNA is composed of 2 nucleotide
polymers
= double stranded

2. Ribonucleic acid (RNA)

= in some forms, it encodes genetic information
= in other forms, plays an essential role in
several
genetic processes
= rarely double stranded
= 3 major types: Messenger RNA (mRNA)
GENE – a segment of DNA ( a sequence of nucleotides
in DNA)
that codes for a functional product

GENOME – all genes taken together within an organism

* size of the gene and entire genome is expressed

in
the number of base pairs

CHROMOSOME – are cellular structures that physically

carry hereditary information; contain
the genes information
Ex: human cell contains 23 pairs
(diploid)
of chromosome while bacteria contain
REPLICATION:
a) bacteria multiply by cell division that produces
two daughter cells from one parent cell
b) genome must be replicated so that each daughter
cell
receives the same complement of functional
DNA

4 STAGES:
1. unwinding or relaxation of the
chromosome’s supercoiled DNA
2. unzipping or disconnecting, the
complementary strands of parental DNA so
that each may serve as a template for
synthesis of new
DNA strands
3. synthesis of new DNA strands
4. termination of replication with release of 2
GENE EXPRESSION OF GENETIC INFORMATION

= processing of information encoded in genetic

elements
that results in the formation of biochemical
products
= 2 stages:
1) Transcription – converts the DNA base
sequence
of the gene into mRNA molecule.
Produces mRNA, tRNA and rRNA

2) Translation – involves production of

proteins
(genetic code within mRNA molecule is
translated into specific amino acid
GENETIC EXCHANGE
= accomplished by 3 basic mechanisms:
1. mutation
2. genetic recombination
3. genetic exchange between bacteria, w/
or w/o
recombination

MUTATION
= a change in the original nucleotide of a gene
or genes
within an organisms genome
= this may involve:
♦a single DNA base within a gene
♦an entire gene
♦several genes
= causes:
1. may occur spontaneously → due to an error
made
during DNA replication
2. induced by chemical or physical factors
(mutagens) in the environment
3. biologic factors such as introduction of
foreign DNA into the cell

♦base pair substitution:

Types:
1. TRANSITION:
♦pyrimidine is changed to other pyrimidine
or a given purine is changed to the other
purine
T C
A G
2. TRANSVERSION:

♦change from a purine to either of the two

pyrimidine or change of a pyrimidine to either of
the two
purine
T A A T

C G G C

♦deletion or breakage

♦addition

♦covalent bonding- a chemical bonding in which

the electrons of one atom are shared with
TYPES OF MUTATION

1. Spontaneous mutation
= 1 for every 10M division
= exemplified by fluctuation test of Luria and
Delbruck

2. Induced mutagenesis
= mutagenes – variety of physical and chemical
agents
that damage the DNA

a) Radiation
= ultraviolet light → most extensively
studied
= ionizing radiation have greater
penetration than UV radiation →
b) Chemical mutagenesis
= 3 categories
1. agents that cause covalent modification
of
DNA bases

Ex.: = alkylating agents such as

ethylmethane
sulfonate and nitrosoguanidine
= modified guanine mispair with
thymine resulting in GC to AT
transitions
= deamination by hydroxylamine or
nitrous acid
= deaminate – cytosine into uracil →
CG to
TA transition adenine into
2. agents that interact noncovalently with DNA,
intercalating between base pairs

Ex.: = intercalating agents like proflavine and

acridine orange
= contain planar aromatic rings that
intercalate between the stacked of DNA →
distort
DNA structure
= anti-tumor or antimalarial agents or
anti-viral

3. base analogues that are incorporated during

replication
= compounds that resemble normal bases
of
DNA but can base pair with two
GENE TRANSFER
= when a genetic material is transferred from
a
donor cell to its recipient

*RECOMBINATION*
= when the genetic material being
transferred
is incorporated to the genetic
material
of the recipient

= Three major pathways:

transformation,
transduction and conjugation
Transformation

= involves the uptake and assimilation of naked

DNA
released
= most important mechanism into the
environment of
genetic exchange for certain bacterial
species;
Streptococcus pneumoniae, Strepsanguis,
Bacillus subtilis, Hemophilus influenza and
Neisseria gonorrheae
= common steps: binding of exogenous DNA of
the cell surface
↓
transport of DNA into the cell
↓
 = things transferred:
♦structural characteristics
♦essential enzymes
♦morphological characteristics
♦biochemical and serologic characteristics

= play a major role in the development of

antibiotic
resistance and in the dissemination of
genes
that encode factors essential to the
organisms
ability to cause disease

= not limited to organisms of the same specie

Transduction

= involves two distinct mechanism whereby

a
bacteriophage can carry bacterial
genes
from one to another

1. generalized transduction
= allows the transfer of any bacterial
gene

2. specialized transduction
= can operate only on particular gene

Bacteriophage – a virus that multiplies in

bacterial cells
2 types:

1. Temperate phage
= when transferred to a recipient, it
recombines
with the genetic material but
remains
inactive
= Ex.: Corynebacterium diphtheriae →
gained a
phage that promotes the formation
of a
diphtheria toxin

2. Virulent phage
= every infected cell is taken over by the
virus
Conjugation

= this occurs between two living cells, involves

cell to
cell contact and requires mobilization of the
donor’s bacterium chromosome

= transfer of genetic materials in a process that

requires
direct contact between two cells and a
special
fertility (F) factor in the donor cell

= critically dependent on the production of a

specialized
appendage, the F pilus
BACTERIAL PLASMIDS

= ancillary genetic element of bacteria that

generally
replicate as duplex DNA circles independent
of the
bacterial chromosome
= self replicating, gene containing circular pieces of
DNA about 1%-5% the size of the bacterial
chromosomes
1. Drug resistance plasmids
= Japan 1950’s
- Shigella flexneri
- 4 Antibiotics: - Chloramphenicol,
Tetracycline, Streptomycin,
Sulfonamide
= R plasmid can be transferred between different
= 2 functionally distinct units:
1. RTF(Resistance Transfer Factor) – contains
genes for autonomous
replication and
conjugation
2. r - determinant → specifies antibiotic
resistance

2. Bacteriocinogenic factors
= code for synthesis of bactericidal proteins
known as bacteriocins
Ex.: Colicins → E. coli
Pyocins → P. aeruginosa

3. Plasmids carrying genes determining metabolic

pathways

4. Plasmids coding for toxin production and

Transposons

= called “jumping genes” because of their

ability to
change location within and even between
the
genomes of the bacterial cells
= do not exist independently within a cell and
must
be incorporated into the chromosome
and or plasmid
= carry genes whose products help mediate the
transpositional process as well as genes
that encode for some other characteristics
such as antibiotic resistance
= play a key role in genetic diversity and
disseminate