A Course to survive Classes.

By Hana

 Grammar is the study of the rules governing the use of a given natural language, and, as such, is a field of linguistics.
Traditionally, grammar included morphology and syntax.

In modern linguistics these subfields are complemented by phonetics, phonology, semantics, and pragmatics.

 In Linguistics Syntax are the rules of a language that show how the words of that language are to be arranged to make a sentence of that language. So It is the study of how words are combined together to form sentences.

 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

The five grammatical units: The Sentence: Composed by one 0r more Clauses. The Clause: Composed by one 0r more Phrases. The Phrase: Composed by one 0r more words. The word: Composed by one 0r more morphemes. The Morpheme: The smallest unit in form and meaning.

Classification by structure :

A Simple Sentence

consists of a single independent Clause with no dependent Clauses.

A Compound sentence

consists of multiple independent clauses with no dependent clauses. These clauses are joined together using Conjunctions, punctuation, or both. (and, but, so, etc)

A Complex Sentence

consists of one or more independent clauses with at least one dependent clause (That, if, whether, etc)

A compound-complex sentence

consists of multiple independent clauses, at least one of which has at least one dependent clause. (Coord and subordinators)

The Inspector abandoned the investigation.

The Inspector abandoned the investigation but I didnt.

He said that the man was dead.

He said that the man was dead and he abandoned the investigation.

 According to Syntax the component parts of a sentence are called CONSTITUENTS Which are the natural groupings of a sentence.

Each of them has:

a Grammatical Category (Whether it is a noun phrase, a
verb phrase, etc)

and

a Grammatical Function (whether it is the subject, or

object, or predicate, etc)

A constituent is formed if
1) Constituents can stand alone Ex. What did you find? A puppy (not found a) 2) Constituents can be replaced by one word. Ex. Where did you find a puppy? I found HIM in the park. 3) Constituents move together. Ex. It was [a puppy] that the child found. [A puppy] was found by the child.

CONSTITUENTS
Categories Noun Phrase Verb Phrase Adjectival Phrase Adverbial Phrase Prepositional Phrase Gerundial Phrase Infinitival Phrase Participial Phrase Noun Clause That Noun Clause If/Whether or not Clause Wh- interrogative Clause Nominal Noun Clauses Defining Relative Clause Non-Defining Relative Clause Functions Subject Predicate Verb Auxiliary Verb Direct Object Indirect Object Subjective Complement Objective Complement Quasi-predicative Adverbial Adjunct Real Subject in Extra Position Anticipatory Subject Anticipatory Object Predicator Complement Prepositional Complement Adjectival Complement

Categories Functioning as Subject: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. A Noun Phrase The Car is White. A Pronoun He is Tall. A Gerund Smoking is bad . An Infinitive To study Grammar is Fun. A Noun Clause What he said is right.

Verbs can be either Transitive or Intransitive; and their predication can be either Complete or Incomplete. I.V.C.P = S + [ V + (A.A) ] T.V.C.P = S + [ V + D.O + (A.A) ] BI T.V.C.P = S+ [ V+ D.O. + I.O + (A.A) ]

T.V.I.P = S + [ V + D.O. + O.C + (A.A)]

I.V.I.P = [V + S.C + (A.A) ]


1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 1.

Categories that function as S.C:

An adjective: It was Dark A participle: That is interesting A prepositional Phrase: It is near London. A noun Phrase: This is a book A gerundial Phrase: That is cheating! A noun Clause: That is what I want An Adverbial Phrase: He is out. An Infinitival Phrase: To see him is to love him. Look,sound, taste, smell, feel Appear, Seem Lie, Stand, rest, remain, keep Dynamic Verbs or Inchoative Verbs: To become, to come, to get, to go, to grow, to fall, to run, to turn.

Has the following characteristics: 1. It may become the subject of the passive. 2. It answers the question What.

Categories Functioning as D.O:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. A Noun Phrase He has lit a cigarret. A Pronoun Dont hit me. A Gerund He loves reading . An Infinitive I want to go away. A Noun Clause Describe what you saw

The person who receives something (D.O) For + NP= Intended I.O I bought a Sweater for John.

Categories Functioning as I.O:

A Noun Phrase I gave the beggar a coin A Pronoun Give me that. A Gerund Give studing a bit of chance. A Prepositional Phrase He gave it to me A Noun Clause Give whoever comes this box.

The relation between D.O and the O.C is that of S P

An easy test for O.C I thought her beautiful She (her) is beautiful

Categories Functioning as O.C: A Noun Phrase We appointed Newton President. A Noun Clause We made him what he is. A Gerund I call that Cheating. An Infinitival Phrase I don`t want anyone to know A Prepositional Phrase We left her in tears An Adjectival Phrase I found the box empty. A Participial Phrase I heard my name called