SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA

A STRATEGY FOR PERFORMANCE

EXCELLENCE
A STRATEGY FOR PERFORMANCE
EXCELLENCE
Ruben Guajardo Ruben Guajardo
Deepak Navnith Deepak Navnith
Victor Torres Victor Torres
Kuan Zhang Kuan Zhang
Professor: Professor:
Neil Kane Neil Kane
March 16
th
, 2001
MS&E 269
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
99.9% is already VERY GOOD
But what could happen at a quality level of 99.9% (i.e., 1000 ppm),
in our everyday lives (about 4.6W)?
More than 3000 newborns accidentally falling
from the hands of nurses or doctors each year
4000 wrong medical prescriptions each year
400 letters per hour which never arrive at their destination
Two long or short landings at American airports each day
How good is good enough?
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
How can we get these results
13 wrong drug prescriptions per year
10 newborn babies dropped by
doctors/nurses per year
Two short or long landings per year in all
the airports in the U.S.
One lost article of mail per hour
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
The answer is:
Six Sigma
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
A Vision and Philosophical commitment
to our consumers to offer the highest quality,
lowest cost products
A Metric that demonstrates quality levels at
99.9997% performance for products and
processs
A Benchmark of our product and process
capability for comparison to best in class
A practical application of statistical Tools
and Methods to help us measure, analyze,
improve, and control our process
What is Six Sigma
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
Six Sigma as a Philosophy
Internal &
External
Failure
Costs
Prevention &
Appraisal
Costs
Old Belief
4W
C
o
s
t
s
Internal &
External
Failure Costs
Prevention &
Appraisal
Costs
New Belief
C
o
s
t
s
4W
5W
6W
Quality
Quality
Old Belief
High Quality = High Cost
New Belief
High Quality = Low Cost
W is a measure of how much
variation exists in a process
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
3 Sigma Vs. 6 Sigma
The 3 sigma Company The 6 sigma Company
Spends 15~25% of sales dollars
on cost of failure
Spends 5% of sales dollars on
cost of failure
Relies on inspection to find
defects
Relies on capable process that
dont produce defects
Does not have a disciplined
approach to gather and analyze
data
Use Measure, Analyze, Improve,
Control and Measure, Analyze,
Design
Benchmarks themselves
against their competition
Benchmarks themselves
against the best in the world
Believes 99% is good enough Believes 99% is unacceptable
Define CTQs internally Defines CTQs externally
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
Focus: The End User
Customer: Internal or External
Consumer: The End User
the Voice of the Consumer (Consumer Cue)
must be translated into
the Voice of the Engineer (Technical Requirement)
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
Six Sigma as a Metric
1
) (
2

!

n
x xi
Y
W
Sigma = W = Deviation
( Square root of variance )
-
7
-
6
-
5
-
4
-
3
-
2
-
1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Axis graduated in Sigma
68.27 %
95.45 %
99.73 %
99.9937 %
99.999943 %
99.9999998 %
result: 317300 ppm outside
(deviation)
45500 ppm
2700 ppm
63 ppm
0.57 ppm
0.002 ppm
between + / - 1W
between + / - 2W
between + / - 3W
between + / - 4W
between + / - 5W
between + / - 6W
W
=
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
3-sigma Process
(centered)
Cp = 1.0
Cpk = 1.0
2,700 ppm
Spec Limits
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
3-sigma Process
(shifted 0.5 std. dev.)
Cp = 1.0
Cpk = 0.833
ppm = 6,442
(about 2.72-sigma)
Spec Limits
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
3-sigma Process
(shifted 1.0 std. dev.)
Cp = 1.0
Cpk = 0.667
ppm = 22,782
(about 2.28-sigma)
Spec Limits
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
3-sigma Process
(shifted 1.5 std. dev.)
Cp = 1.0
Cpk = 0.5
ppm = 66,811
(about 1.83-sigma)
Spec Limits
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
Non-Liner Decrease
2
3
4
5
6
308,537
66,811
6,210
233
3.4
W PPM
Process
Capability
Defects per Million
Opportunities
* Includes 1.5W shift
Focusing on W requires thorough process
understanding and breakthrough thinking
Focusing on W requires thorough process
understanding and breakthrough thinking
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
1 2 3 4 5 6
Process Sigma
%

C
h
a
n
g
e
0
100000
200000
300000
400000
500000
600000
700000
800000
P
P
M
From 1 to 2
From 3 to 4
From 4 to 5
From 5 to 6
% Change PPM
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
Six Sigma as a Tool
Process Mapping Tolerance Analysis
Structure Tree Components Search
Pareto Analysis Hypothesis Testing
Gauge R & R Regression
Rational Subgrouping DOE
Baselining SPC
Many familiar quality tools applied in a
structured methodology
Many familiar quality tools applied in a
structured methodology
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
Six Sigma as a Method
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To get results, should we focus our behavior on the Y or X
Y X1Xn
Dependent Independent
Output Input-Process
Effect Cause
Symptom Problem
Monitor Control
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
A Traditional View
Output Variables
Manage the outputs.
Sales Growth
Market Share
Profitability
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
A Non-Traditional View
Output Variables
Input Variables
Manage the inputs; respond to the outputs.
Sales Growth
Market Share
Profitability
Customer Satisfaction
Product Quality
On-Time Delivery
COQ
Credit Terms
Relationships
Service
Customer
Training
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
Distinguish Vital Few
from Trivial Many
Y = Dependent Variable Output, Defect
x = Independent Variables Potential Cause
x* = Independent Variable Critical Cause
Define the Problem / Defect Statement
Y = f ( x
1
*
, x
2
, x
3
, x
4
*
, x
5
. . . X
n
)
Process
(Parameters)
Material
Methods
People
Environment
Output
Machine
Measurements
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
Strategy by Phase -
Phase
Measure
(What)
Analyze
(Where, When, Why)
Improve
(How)
Control
(Sustain, Leverage)
Step
What is the frequency of Defects?
Define the defect
Define performance standards
Validate measurement system
Establish capability metric
Where, when and why do Defects occur?
Identify sources of variation
Determine the critical process parameters
How can we improve the process?
Screen potential causes
Discover relationships
Establish operating tolerances
Were the improvements effective?
Re-establish capability metric
How can we maintain the improvements?
Implement process control mechanisms
Leverage project learning's
Document & Proceduralize
Focus
Y
Y
Y
Y
X
Vital X
X
Vital X
Vital X
Y, Vital X
Y, Vital X
Process Characterization
Process Optimization
Measure
Improve
A
n
a
l
y
z
e
C
o
n
t
r
o
l
Measure
Improve
A
n
a
l
y
z
e
C
o
n
t
r
o
l
Measure
Improve
A
n
a
l
y
z
e
C
o
n
t
r
o
l
Measure
Improve
A
n
a
l
y
z
e
C
o
n
t
r
o
l
Measure Measure
Improvement Improvement
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
Six Sigma Organization
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
A Black Belt has, and will
Leadership Driving the Use
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
Black Belt Training
Task
Time on
Consulting/
Training
Mentoring
Related
Projects
Green
Belt
Utilize
Statistical/
Quality
technique
2%~5%
Find one
new green
belt
2 / year
Black
Belt
Lead use
of
technique
and
communic-
ate new
ones
5%~10%
Two green
belts
4 / year
Master
Black
Belt
Consulting/
Mentoring/
Training
80~100%
Five Black
Belts
10 / year
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
Core Statistical Skills Core Six Sigma Quality Skills Core Interpersonal Skills
GBM
Statistical Software (JMP, Minitab)
MIN101
GBM
AIEG QMS
GBM
Communication (oral, written)
AEC722, DDI121
GBM
Numerical and Graphical Techniques
MIN101, IBM548
GBM
QS 9000
AEC279
GBM
Team Facilitation
DDI170
GBM
Statistical Process Control
AEC506, AEC661, AEC662, AEC663
GBM
Customer Satisfaction
SSG100, TCS100
GBM
Coaching and Mentoring
LDR380, PER119
GBM
Process Capability
AEC661, AEC662, SCP201
GBM
Six Steps to Six Sigma
SSG100, SSG102CD
GBM
Managing Change
MGT564, MGT124, PDE532
GBM
Comparative Tests
MIN101, SPC201
GBM
Concurrent Engineering
BM
Leadership
MGT561, MGT562, DDI180
GBM
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
ENG998, AEC603
GBM
TCS
TCS100
BM
Team Building
MGT560, MGT562, EC727, MGT155
GBM
Measurement System Analysis
AEC663
GBM
Systemic Approach to Problem
Solving
QUA392
M
Instructional/Teaching
MOT132
GBM
Design of Experiments (e.g. Full,
Fractional, Taguchi Designs)
ENG998, QUA389
GBM
Team Oriented Problem Solving
(8D, 7D, 5P)
M
Managing Projects
AEC471, MGT839
GBM
Regression (e.g. linear, nonlinear)
BM
Quality System Review
QUA590
GBM
Statistical Process Characterization
Strategies and Techniques
ENG227
BM
Team Problem Solving Non-
Manufacturing
CES103
BM
Statistical Inference
MIN101, SPC201
BM
Design for Manufacturability
ENG123, ENG123CD
BM
Confidence Intervals
MIN101, SPC201
BM
Financial/Economic Quality Issues
BM
Probability Concepts and
Distributions
SPC201
M
Quality Function Deployment
QUA200A, QUA200B, QUA200C
BM
Response Surface Methods
QUA393
M
Total Quality Management
BM
Screening DOE
QUA391
M
Benchmarking
BMK220
M
Advanced Problem Solving
Strategies and Technologies
ENG998
M
Product Development Assessment
M
Acceptance Sampling
SPC201
M
Sample Size Estimation
M
Robust Design of Processes and
Products
M
Survival Analysis / Reliability
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
Corporate Commitment
Motorola is committed to developing these leaders
We provide these people with extensive training in statistical
and interpersonal tools, skilled guidance and management
support
Once their development has achieved a level worthy of
recognition, we even have a term for those exceptional
individuals :
Six Sigma Black Belts
Chris Galvin
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
Corporate Commitment (Contd)
Motto:
Quality is our job
Customer satisfaction is our duty
Customer loyalty is our future
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
Barrier Breakthrough Plan
1.00
10.00
100.00
J94
D
P
M
O
p
6 Sigma
SIGMA
J95 J96 J97
6
5.65
5.6
5.5
5.4
5.3
MY95 MY96 MY97 MY98
Pareto, Brainstorming, C&E, BvC
8D, 7D, TCS Teams, SPC
DOE, DFM, PC
RenewBlack Belt Program (Internal Motorola)
Black Belt Program (External Suppliers)
Proliferation of Master Black Belts
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
Other Companies have Black
Belts Program
GE has very successfully instituted this program
4,000 trained Black Belts by YE 1997
10,000 trained Black Belts by YE 2000
You havent much future at GE unless they are selected to
become Black Belts - Jack Welch
Kodak has instituted this program
CEO and COO driven process
Training includes both written and oral exams
Minimum requirements: a college education, basic statistics,
presentation skills, computer skills
Other companies include:
Allied Signal -Texas Instruments
IBM - ABB
Navistar - Citibank
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
Measure Measure
Characterize Process
Understand Process
Evaluate Evaluate
Improve and Verify Process
Improve Improve
Maintain New Process
Control Control
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
Define
Problem
Define
Problem
Understand
Process
Understand
Process
Collect
Data
Collect
Data
Process
Performance
Process
Performance
Process Capability
- Cp/Cpk
- Run Charts
Understand Problem
(Control or
Capability)
Data Types
- Defectives
- Defects
- Continuous
Measurement
Systems Evaluation
(MSE)
Define Process-
Process Mapping
Historical
Performance
Brainstorm
Potential Defect
Causes
Defect
Statement
Project
Goals
Understand the Process and Potential Impact Understand the Process and Potential Impact
Measure Phase
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
Reduce
Complaints
(int./ext.)
Reduce
Cost
Reduce
Defects
Problem Definitions need to be based on
quantitative facts supported by analytical data.
Problem Definitions need to be based on
quantitative facts supported by analytical data.
What are the Goals?
What do you want to improve?
What is your Y?
Problem Definition
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
Baselining:
Quantifying the goodness (or badness!) of the current
process, before ANY improvements are made, using
sample data. The key to baselining is collecting
representative sample data
Sampling Plan
- Size of Subgroups
- Number of Subgroups
- Take as many X as possible into consideration
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
How do we know our process?
Process Map
Historical Data
Fishbone
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
RATIONAL SUBROUPING Allows samples to be taken that
include only white noise, within the samples. Black noise
occurs between the samples.
RATIONAL SUBROUPING Allows samples to be taken that
include only white noise, within the samples. Black noise
occurs between the samples.
RATIONAL SUBGROUPS
Minimize variation within subroups
Maximize variation between subrgoups
RATIONAL SUBGROUPS
Minimize variation within subroups
Maximize variation between subrgoups
TIME
P
R
O
C
E
S
S

R
E
S
P
O
N
S
E
WHITE NOISE
(Common
Cause Variation)
BLACK NOISE
(Signal)
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
Visualizing the Causes
W
st
+ W
shift
=
W
total
Time 1
Time 2
Time 3
Time 4
Within Group
Called W short term (W
st
)
Our potential the best
we can be
The s reported by all 6
sigma companies
The trivial many
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
Visualizing the Causes
Between Groups
W
st
+ W
shift
= W
total
Time 1
Time 2
Time 3
Time 4
Called W
shift
(truly a
measurement in sigmas of how
far the mean has shifted)
Indicates our process control
The vital few
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
Assignable Cause
Outside influences
Black noise
Potentially controllable
How the process is actually performing
over time
Fishbone
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
Common Cause Variation
Variation present in every process
Not controllable
The best the process can be within the
present technology
Data within subgroups (Z.st) will contain only Common Cause
Variation
Data within subgroups (Z.st) will contain only Common Cause
Variation
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
W
2
Total
= W
2
Part-Part
+ W
2
R&R
Recommendation:
Resolution 10% of tolerance to measure
Gauge R&R 20% of tolerance to measure
Repeatability (Equipment variation)
Variation observed with one measurement device when used several times by one operator
while measuring the identical characteristic on the same part.
Reproducibility (Appraised variation)
Variation Obtained from different operators using the same device when measuring the
identical characteristic on the same part.
Stability or Drift
Total variation in the measurement obtained with a measurement obtained on the same
master or reference value when measuring the same characteristic, over an extending time
period.
Gauge R&R
Part-Part
R&R
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
To understand where you want to be,
you need to know how to get there.v
To understand where you want to be,
you need to know how to get there.v
Map the Process Map the Process
Measure the Process Measure the Process
Identify the variables - x Identify the variables - x
Understand the Problem -
Y = function of variables -x
Y=f(x)
Understand the Problem -
Y = function of variables -x
Y=f(x)
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
Measure Measure
Characterize Process
Understand Process
Evaluate Evaluate
Improve and Verify Process
Improve Improve
Maintain New Process
Control Control
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
In many cases, the data sample can be transformed so that it is approximately normal.
For example, square roots, logarithms, and reciprocals often take a positively skewed
distribution and convert it to something close to a bell-shaped curve
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
What do we Need?
LSL USL
LSL USL
LSL USL
Off-Target, Low Variation
High Potential Defects
Good Cp but Bad Cpk
On Target
High Variation
High Potential Defects
No so good Cp and Cpk
On-Target, Low Variation
Low Potential Defects
Good Cp and Cpk
Variation reduction and process
centering create processes with
less potential for defects.
The concept of defect reduction
applies to ALL processes (not just
manufacturing)
Variation reduction and process
centering create processes with
less potential for defects.
The concept of defect reduction
applies to ALL processes (not just
manufacturing)
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
Eliminate Trivial Many Eliminate Trivial Many
Qualitative Evaluation
Technical Expertise
Graphical Methods
Screening Design of Experiments
Qualitative Evaluation
Technical Expertise
Graphical Methods
Screening Design of Experiments
Identify Vital Few Identify Vital Few
Pareto Analysis
Hypothesis Testing
Regression
Design of Experiments
Pareto Analysis
Hypothesis Testing
Regression
Design of Experiments
Quantify
Opportunity
Quantify
Opportunity
% Reduction in Variation
Cost/ Benefit
% Reduction in Variation
Cost/ Benefit
Our Goal:
Identify the Key Factors (xs)
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
Graph>Box plot
75%
50%
25%
Graph>Box plot
Without X values
DBP
Box plots help to see the data distribution
Day
DBP
10
9
10
4
99
94
109
104
99
94
Operator
DBP
10
9
10
4
99
94
Shift
DBP
10
9
10
4
99
94
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
Statistical Analysis
0.025 0.020 0.015 0.010 0.005 0.000
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
New Machine
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
0.025 0.020 0.015 0.010 0.005 0.000
30
20
10
0
Machine 6 mths
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
Is the factor really important?
Do we understand the impact for
the factor?
Has our improvement made an
impact
What is the true impact?
Hypothesis Testing
Regression Analysis
55 45 35 25 15 5
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
X
Y
R-Sq = 86.0 %
Y = 2.19469 + 0.918549X
95% PI
Regression
Regression Plot
Apply statistics to validate actions & improvements
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
A- Poor Control, Poor Process
B- Must control the Process better, Technology is fine
C- Process control is good, bad Process or technology
D- World Class
A
B
C
D
TECHNOLOGY
1 2 3 4 5 6
good poor
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5 C
O
N
T
R
O
L
Zshift
Z
St
poor
good
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
Con-
sumer
Cue
Technical
Requirement
Preliminary
Drawing/Database
Identity
CTQs
Identify
Critical
Process
Obtain Data on
Similar Process
Calculate Z
values
Rev 0
Drawings
Stop
Adjust
process &
design
1
st
piece
inspection
Prepilot
Data
Pilot data
Obtain data
Recheck
Z levels
Stop
Fix process
& design
Z<3
Z>= Design Intent
M.A.I.C
M.A.D
Six Sigma Design Process
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
#1 Define the customer Cue and technical requirement we
need to satisfy
Consumer Cue: Blocks Cannot rattle and must not
interfere with box
Technical Requirement: There must be a positive Gap
Reliability (Level)
Time to install
Total Electricity Usage Req'd for System
Time to Repair
Floor space occupied NOINPUT IN THIS AREA
Sensor Resolution
Response time to power loss
Voltage
Power
Time to supply Backup Power
backup power capacity (time)
Sensor Sensitivity
Floor Loading
Time Between maintenance
Time between equipment replacement
Safety Index Rating
Cost of investment
Cost of maintenace
Cost of installation
Years in Mainstream market
Customer Support Rating
Dependency on weather conditions
ECO-rating
Hours of training req'd
Preferred up dwn dwn dwn dwn dwn dwn tgt tgt dwn dwn tgt dwn up up
Engineering Metrics
Customer Requirements C
u
sto
m
e
r
W
e
ig
h
ts
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b
ility
(L
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v
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T
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M
a
in
stre
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m
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a
rk
e
t
1 Fast Response 9
2 Long time of backup power supply 9
3 Low environmental impact 9
4 Safe to operate 9
5 Meet power requirements 9
6 Low investment cost 3
7 Occupies small floor space 3
8 Easy to upgrade 3
9 Low upgrading costs 3
10 Low time to implement 3
11 Cheap to maintain 3
12 Low recovery or cycle time 3
13 Long life cycle of the system/component 1
14 Cheap to operate 1
15 Cheap to install 1
16 Long Existing proven technology 1
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
#2 Define the target dimensions (New designs) or
process mean (existing design) for all mating Parts
Gap Must Be T=.011, LSL=.001 and USL = .021
Gap
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
(-) (-) (-) (-)
(+)
Step #3
Gather process capability data.
Use actual or similar part data to calculate SS of
largest contributors.
May use expert data for minimal contributors
Do not calculate s from current tolerances
Gap Requirements

T
= .010
USL = .020
LSL = .001
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
(-) (-) (-) (-)
(+)

gap
=
box

cube1

cube2

cube3

cube4
W
gap
= W
2
box
+ W
2
cube1
+ W
2
cube2
+ W
2
cube3
+ W
2
cube4
Short Term

gap
= 0?0 l20 l20 l20 l20!0lo
W
gap
= (00l)
2
+ (00l)
2
+ (00l)
2
+ (00l)
2
+ (00l)
2
= .00224
Long Term
W
gap
= (00l)
2
+ (00l)
2
+ (00l)
2
+ (00l)
2
+ (00l)
2
= .00335
From process:
Average W
st
Cube 1.250 .001
Box 5.080 .001
Zshift = 1.6
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
Measure Measure
Characterize Process
Understand Process
Evaluate Evaluate
Improve and Verify Process
Improve Improve
Maintain New Process
Control Control
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
6W
What Do I need to do to improve my Game?
GUTTER!
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
Design of Experiments (DOE) Design of Experiments (DOE)
To estimate the effects of independent Variables on
Responses.
Terminology Terminology
Factor An independent variable
Level A value for the factor.
Response - Outcome
X Y
PROCESS
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
THE COFFEE EXAMPLE
Low High
Coffee Brand Maxwell House Chock Full o Nuts
Water Spring Tap
Coffee Amount 1 2
Level
Factor
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
Main Effects Main Effects: Effect of each individual factor on response
Bean A Bean B
2.2
3.7
ME
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
Bean A
Temp X
Bean B
Temp Y
Concept of Interaction Concept of Interaction
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
Why use DoE ? Why use DoE ?
Shift the average of a process.
Reduce the variation.
Shift average and reduce variation
x
1 x
2
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
DoE techniques
Full Factorial.
2
4
= 16 trials
2 is number of levels
4 is number of factors
All combinations are tested.
Fractional factorial can reduce number of
trials from 16 to 8.
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
DoE techniques.contd.
Fractional Factorial
Taguchi techniques
Response Surface Methodologies
Half fraction
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
High Low
Adhesion Area (cm
2
) 15 20
Type of Glue Acryl Urethan
Thickness of Foam Styrene Thick Thin
Thickness of Logo Thick Thin
Amount of pressure Short Long
Pressure application time Small Big
Primer applied Yes No
Level
Factor
Mini Case Mini Case - - NISSAN MOTOR COMPANY NISSAN MOTOR COMPANY
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
+
+ +
+ +
- -
-
+
+ -
- +
- +
+
-
- +
+ +
- -
-
-
- -
- +
- +
+
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9.8
Design Array
A B C D
No Gluing Str
8.9
9.2
8.9
12.3
13
13.9
12.6
A - Adhesion Area (cm
2
)
B - Type of Glue
C - Thickness of Foam
Styrene
D - Thickness of Logo
`
A B C D
+ 4.60 5.50 5.65 5.58
- 6.48 5.58 5.43 5.50
Effect Tabulation
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA

-

-

-

-
Adhesion
Area
Type of Glue
Thk of Foam
Styrene
Thk of logo
Factor Effect Plot
4.6
6.5
5.5
5.58
5.65
5.43
5.58
5
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
1. Define Objective.
2. Select the Response (Y)
3. Select the factors (Xs)
4. Choose the factor levels
5. Select the Experimental Design
6. Run Experiment and Collect the Data
7. Analyze the data
8. Conclusions
9. Perform a confirmation run.
STEPS IN PLANNING AN EXPERIMENT STEPS IN PLANNING AN EXPERIMENT
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
.No amount of experimentation can prove
me right; a single experiment can prove me
wrong.
.Science can only ascertain what is, but
not what should be, and outside of its domain
value judgments of all kinds remain
necessary.
- Albert Einstein
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
Measure Measure
Characterize Process
Understand Process
Evaluate Evaluate
Improve and Verify Process
Improve Improve
Maintain New Process
Control Control
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
CONTROL PHASE - SIX SIGMA
Control Phase Activities:
-Confirmation of Improvement
-Confirmation you solved the practical problem
-Benefit validation
-Buy into the Control plan
-Quality plan implementation
-Procedural changes
-System changes
-Statistical process control implementation
-Mistake-proofing the process
-Closure documentation
-Audit process
-Scoping next project
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
CONTROL PHASE - SIX SIGMA
How to create a Control Plan:
1. Select Causal Variable(s). Proven vital few X(s)
2. Define Control Plan
- 5Ws for optimal ranges of X(s)
3. Validate Control Plan
- Observe Y
4. Implement/Document Control Plan
5. Audit Control Plan
6. Monitor Performance Metrics
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
CONTROL PHASE - SIX SIGMA
Control Plan Tools:
1. Basic Six Sigma control methods.
- 7M Tools: Affinity diagram, tree diagram, process
decision program charts, matrix diagrams,
interrelationship diagrams, prioritization matrices,
activity network diagram.
2. Statistical Process Control (SPC)
- Used with various types of distributions
- Control Charts
Attribute based (np, p, c, u). Variable based (X-R, X)
Additional Variable based tools
-PRE-Control
-Common Cause Chart (Exponentially Balanced
Moving Average (EWMA))
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
PRODUCT
MANAGEMENT
OVERALL
GOAL OF
SOFTWARE
KNOWLEDGE OF
COMPETITORS
SUPERVISION
PRODUCT
DESIGN
PRODUCT
MANAGEMENT
PRODUCT
DESIGN
PRODUCT
MANAGEMENT
INNOVATION
OUTPUT
DIRECTORY
ORGANIZATION
INTUITIVE
ANSWERS
SUPPORT
METHODS TO MAKE
EASIER FOR USERS
CHARACTERISTICS:
Organizing ideas into meaningful
categories
Data Reduction. Large numbers of qual.
Inputs into major dimensions or categories.
AFFINITY DIAGRAM
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
MATRIX DIAGRAM
P
a
t
i
e
n
t

s
c
h
e
d
u
l
e
d
A
t
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t

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g
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d
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t

a
r
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s
O
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a
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s

e
q
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p
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T
r
a
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s
p
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t
s

p
a
t
i
e
n
t
P
r
o
v
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d
e

T
h
e
r
a
p
y
N
o
t
i
f
i
e
s

o
f

r
e
t
u
r
n
A
t
t
e
n
d
a
n
t

a
s
s
i
g
n
e
d
A
t
t
e
n
d
a
n
t

a
r
r
i
v
e
s
P
a
t
i
e
n
t

r
e
t
u
r
n
e
d
Arrive at scheduled time 5 5 5 5 1 5 0 0 0 0 0
Arrive with proper equipment 4 2 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 0 0
Dressed properly 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Delivered via correct mode 2 3 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
Take back to room promptly 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 5 5 5
IMPORTANCE SCORE 39 25 25 27 25 0 20 20 20 20
RANK 1 3 3 2 3 7 6 6 6 6
5 = high importance, 3 = average importance, 1 = low importance
HOWS
WHATS
RELATIONSHIP
MATRIX
CUSTOMER
IMPORTANCE
MATRIX
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
A
d
d

f
e
a
t
u
r
e
s
M
a
k
e

e
x
i
s
t
i
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g

p
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f
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a
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e
x
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p
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l
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p
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n
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w

p
r
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a
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t
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n
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a
l

s
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p
p
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t

b
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e
t
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t

a
r
r
o
w
s
I
n

a
r
r
o
w
s
T
o
t
a
l

a
r
r
o
w
s
S
t
r
e
n
g
t
h
Add features 5 0 5 45
Make existing product faster 2 1 3 27
Make existing product easier to use 1 2 3 21
Leave as-is and lower price 0 3 3 21
Devote resources to new products 1 1 2 18
Increase technical support budget 0 2 2 18
(9) = Strong Influence
(3) = Some Influence
(1) = Weak/possible influence
Means row leads to column item
Means column leads to row item
COMBINATION ID/MATRIX DIAGRAM
CHARACTERISTICS:
Uncover patterns in
cause and effect
relationships.
Most detailed level in
tree diagram. Impact
on one another
evaluated.
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
CONTROL PHASE - SIX SIGMA
Control Plan Tools:
1. Basic Six Sigma control methods.
- 7M Tools: Affinity diagram, tree diagram, process
decision program charts, matrix diagrams,
interrelationship diagrams, prioritization matrices,
activity network diagram.
2. Statistical Process Control (SPC)
- Used with various types of distributions
- Control Charts
Attribute based (np, p, c, u). Variable based (X-R, X)
Additional Variable based tools
-PRE-Control
-Common Cause Chart (Exponentially Balanced
Moving Average (EWMA))
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
How do we select the correct Control Chart:
Type
Data
Ind. Meas. or
subgroups
Normally dist.
data
Interest in
sudden mean
changes
Graph defects
of defectives
Oport. Area
constant from
sample to
sample
X, Rm
p, np
X - R MA, EWMA or
CUSUM and
Rm
u
C, u
Size of the
subgroup
constant
p
If mean is big, X and
R are effective too
Ir neither n nor p are
small: X - R, X - Rm
are effective
More efective to
detect gradual
changes in long term
Use X - R chart with
modified rules
Variables Attributes
Measurement
of subgroups
Individuals
Yes
No No
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
No
Defects Defectives
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
Additional Variable based tools:
1. PRE-Control
Algorithm for control based on tolerances
Assumes production process with measurable/adjustable
quality characteristic that varies.
Not equivalent to SPC. Process known to be capable of
meeting tolerance and assures that it does so.
SPC used always before PRE-Control is applied.
Process qualified by taking consecutive samples of individual
measurements, until 5 in a row fall in central zone, before 2
fall in cautionary. Action taken if 2 samples are in Cau. zone.
Color coded
YELLOW
ZONE
GREEN
ZONE
YELLOW
ZONE
RED
ZONE
RED
ZONE
1/4 TOL. 1/2 TOL. 1/4 TOL.
L
o
w
T
o
l
e
r
a
n
c
e

L
i
m
t
T
o
l
e
r
a
n
c
e

L
i
m
t
H
i
g
h
R
e
f
e
r
e
n
c
e

L
i
n
e
P
R
E
-
C
o
n
t
r
o
l
D
I
M
E
N
S
I
O
N
N
O
M
I
N
A
L
R
e
f
e
r
e
n
c
e

L
i
n
e
P
R
E
-
C
o
n
t
r
o
l
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
2. Common Causes Chart (EWMA).
Mean of automated manufacturing processes drifts because of
inherent process factor. SPC consideres process static.
Drift produced by common causes.
Implement a Common Cause Chart.
No control limits. Action limits are placed on chart.
Computed based on costs
Violating action limit does not result in search for special
cause. Action taken to bring process closer to target value.
Process mean tracked by EWMA
Benefits:
Used when process has inherent drift
Provide forecast of where next process measurement will be.
Used to develop procedures for dynamic process control
Equation: EWMA = y^t + W (yt - y^t) W between 0 and 1
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
EWMA chart of sand temperature
0
50
100
150
1 4 7
1
0
1
3
1
6
1
9
2
2
2
5
2
8
Observations
D
e
g
r
e
e
s
Sand
Temperature
EWMA
Sand Temperature EWMA Error
125 125.00 0.00
123 125.00 -2.00
118 123.20 -5.20
116 118.52 -2.52
108 116.25 -8.25
112 108.83 3.17
101 111.68 -10.68
100 102.07 -2.07
92 100.21 -8.21
102 98.22 3.78
111 101.62 9.38
107 110.60 -3.60
112 107.30 4.70
112 111.53 0.47
122 111.95 10.05
140 121.00 19.00
125 138.00 -13.00
130 126.31 3.69
136 129.63 6.37
130 135.36 -5.36
112 130.54 -18.54
115 113.85 1.15
100 114.89 -14.89
113 101.49 11.51
111 111.85 -0.85
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
Project Closure
Improvement fully implemented and process re-baselined.
Quality Plan and control procedures institutionalized.
Owners of the process: Fully trained and running the process.
Any required documentation done.
History binder completed. Closure cover sheet signed.
Score card developed on characteristics improved and reporting
method defined.
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
Motorola ROI
1987-1994
Reduced in-process defect levels by a factor of 200.
Reduced manufacturing costs by $1.4 billion.
Increased employee production on a dollar basis by 126%.
Increased stockholders share value fourfold.
AlliedSignal ROI
1992-1996
$1.4 Billion cost reduction.
14% growth per quarter.
520% price/share growth.
Reduced new product introduction time by 16%.
24% bill/cycle reduction.
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
General Electric ROI
1995-1998
Company wide savings of over $1 Billion.
Estimated annual savings to be $6.6 Billion by the year 2000.
SIX SIGMA SIX SIGMA
Bibliography
Control Engineering On line, Design for Six Sigma Capability
http://www.controleng.com/, 1999
Forrest W. Breyfogle III, Implementing Six Sigma, John Wiely & Sons, Inc,1999
Infinity Performance Systems, Six Sigma Overview,
http://www.6sigmaworld.com/six_sigma.htm, 2000
Motorola Inc., What is 3 vs. 6 sigma,
http://www.Motorola.com/MIMS/MSPG/Special/CLM/sld011.htm, 1997
Sigma Holdings, Inc., Six Sigma Breakthrough Strategy,
http://www.6-sigma.com/Bts1.htm, 2000
Six Sigma SPC / Jim Winings, Six Sigma & SPC,
http://www.sixsigmaspc.com/six_sigma.html, 2001
StatPoint, LLC. Six Sigma Tour,
http://www.sgcorp.com/six-sigma_tour.htm, 2001