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39.1
The environment of any
organism includes
Abiotic, or nonliving components
– Temperature
– Water
– Sunlight
– Wind
– Rocks and soil
Biotic, or living components
– All organisms in the environment
39.2
A population
– Is a group of individuals of a single species
living in the same general area
Density
– Is the number of individuals per unit area or
volume
Dispersion
– Is the pattern of spacing among individuals
within the boundaries of the population
39.3
A clumped dispersion
– Is one in which individuals aggregate in
patches
– May be influenced by resource availability
and behavior
39.5
A uniform dispersion
– Is one in which individuals are evenly
distributed
– May be influenced by social interactions
such as territoriality
39.5
A random dispersion
– Is one in which the position of each
individual is independent of other
individuals
39.5
Life Tables
A life table
– Is an age-specific summary of the survival
pattern of a population
– Is best constructed by following the fate of
a cohort (group of individuals from a
population)
39.6
Thelife table of Belding’s ground
squirrels
– Reveals many things about this population
39.6
Life Table for Batteries
Exponential Growth
The J-shaped curve of exponential growth
– Is characteristic of some populations that are
rebounding
8,000
Elephant population
6,000
4,000
2,000
0
1900 1920 1940 1960 1980
39.7 Year
The Logistic Growth Model
In the logistic population growth model
– The per capita rate of increase declines
as carrying capacity is reached
39.7
The Logistic Model and Real
Populations
The growth of 1,000
laboratory 800
Number of Paramecium/ml
populations of 600
paramecia 400
200
– Fits an S-shaped 0
0 5 15
curve
10
Time (days)
150
Number of Daphnia/50 ml
120
90
60
30
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Time (days)
80
60
Number of females
40
20
0
1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000
Time (years)
39.9
Competition for Resources
– In crowded populations, increasing population
density intensifies competition for resources
4.0
10,000
Average number of seeds
per reproducing individual
3.8
3.6
1,000
3.4
3.2
3.0
100
0 2.8
0 10 100 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Seeds planted per m2 Density of females
(a) Plantain. The number of seeds (b) Song sparrow. Clutch size in the song sparrow
produced by plantain (Plantago major) on Mandarte Island, British Columbia, decreases
decreases as density increases. as density increases and food is in short supply.
39.9
Abiotic and Biotic Factors Controlling
Populations
– Many populations
Undergo regular boom-and-bust cycles
(thousands)
(thousands)
120
community Lynx 9
80 6
40 3
39.10 0
1850 1875 1900 1925
0
Year
Abiotic and Biotic Factors Controlling
Populations
The accumulation of toxic wastes can
contribute to the regulation of
population size
If snowshoe hares are exposed to toxic
waste that reduces their reproductive
rate, what will happen to the lynx?
39.10
Human population growth has slowed
after centuries of exponential increase
2
The Plague
1
0
8000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0 1000 2000
39.11 B.C. B.C. B.C. B.C. B.C. A.D. A.D.
Though the global population is still
growing
– The rate of growth began to slow
approximately 40 years ago
2.2
2
1.8
1.6
Percent increase
2003
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
39.11 1950 1975 2000 2025 2050
Year
50
40
Birth or death rate per 1,000 people
30
20
10 Sweden Mexico
Birth rate Birth rate
Death rate Death rate
0
1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000 2050
Year
Age Structure
Oneimportant demographic factor in
present and future growth trends
– Is a country’s age structure, the relative
number of individuals at each age
Age structure
– Is commonly represented in pyramids
Rapid growth Slow growth Decrease
Afghanistan United States Italy
Male Female Age Male Female Age Male Female
85+ 85+
80–84 80–84
75–79 75–79
70–74 70–74
65–69 65–69
60–64 60–64
55–59 55–59
50–54 50–54
45–49 45–49
40–44 40–44
35–39 35–39
30–34 30–34
25–29 25–29
20–24 20–24
15–19 15–19
10–14 10–14
5–9 5–9
0–4 0–4
8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8
Percent of population Percent of population Percent of population
Global Carrying Capacity
Just
how many humans can the
biosphere support?
What Is a Community?
A biological community
– Is an assemblage of populations of
various species living close enough for
potential interaction
A community’s interactions include
competition, predation, herbivory (plant/animal),
symbiosis, and disease
Populations are linked by interspecific
interactions
– They affect the survival and reproduction of the
species engaged in the interaction
39.12
Interspecific interactions
– Can have differing effects on the
populations involved
39.12
The Competitive Exclusion
Principle
The competitive exclusion principle
– States that two species competing for the
same limiting resources cannot coexist in
the same place
39.13
Ecological Niches
The ecological niche
– Is the total of an organism’s use of the
biotic and abiotic resources in its
environment
39.13
Predation
Predation refers to an interaction
– Where one species, the predator, kills
and eats the other, the prey
Feeding adaptations of predators
include
– Claws, teeth, fangs, stingers, and poison
Animals also display
– A great variety of defensive adaptations
39.14
Cryptic coloration, or camouflage
– Makes prey difficult to spot
39.14
Aposematic coloration
– Warns predators to stay away from prey
39.14
In Batesian mimicry
– A palatable or harmless species mimics
an unpalatable or harmful model
39.15
Mutualism
Is an interspecific interaction that
benefits both species
39.15
Commensalism
One species benefits and the other is not
affected
39.15
Trophic Structure
Trophic structure
– Is the feeding relationships between
organisms in a community
– Is a key factor in community dynamics
39.16
Quaternary
consumers
Tertiary
– Link the trophic consumers
Primary
consumers
Herbivore Zooplankton
Primary
producers
Smaller
Baleen Sperm
A food web whales
toothed
whales
whales
– Is a branching Elephant
Leopard
food chain with Crab-eater
seals seals seals
complex
trophic Birds Fishes Squids
interactions
Carnivorous
plankton
Euphausids Copepods
(krill)
39.16 Phyto-
plankton
Keystone Species
Keystone species
– Are not necessarily abundant in a
community
– Exert strong control on a community by
their ecological roles, or niches
39.17
Field studies of sea stars
– Exhibit their role as a keystone species in
intertidal communities
Number of species
15
present
10 Without Pisaster (experimental)
0
1963 ´64 ´65 ´66 ´67 ´68 ´69 ´70 ´71 ´72 ´73
(a) The sea star Pisaster ochraceous feeds (b) When Pisaster was removed from an intertidal zone,
preferentially on mussels but will mussels eventually took over the rock face and eliminated
39.17 consume other invertebrates. most other invertebrates and algae. In a control area from
which Pisaster was not removed, there was little change
in species diversity.
What Is Disturbance?
A disturbance
– Is an event that changes a community
– Removes organisms from a community
– Alters resource availability
Stability
39.18
The large-scale fire in Yellowstone
National Park in 1988
– Demonstrated that communities can
often respond very rapidly to a massive
disturbance
(a) Soon after fire. As this photo taken soon after the fire shows, (b) One year after fire. This photo of the same general area taken the
the burn left a patchy landscape. Note the unburned trees in the following year indicates how rapidly the community began to
distance. recover. A variety of herbaceous plants, different from those in the
former forest, cover the ground.
39.18
Ecological Succession
Ecological succession
– Is the sequence of community and
ecosystem changes after a disturbance
Primary succession
– Occurs where no soil exists when succession
begins
Secondary succession
– Begins in an area where soil remains after a
disturbance
39.19
Retreating glaciers
– Provide a valuable field-research
opportunity on succession
Canada
Grand
Ri
l.
gg
eG
Pacific Gl. Alaska 0 5 10
s
ui
id
Gl
rG
Br
.
1940 1912
Mc
l.
1948 Miles
Pl
.
Gl
at
1899 1941
ea
nt
u
e
em
G
1907 1931 1911
l.
1879 1948
s
Ca
1900
1879 1879 1892 1913
1935 1949
1860
Reid Gl.
1879
Johns Hopkins
Gl. Glacier
Bay
1830
1780
1760
Pleasant Is.
39.19
McBride glacier retreating
Succession on the moraines in Glacier
Bay, Alaska
– Follows a predictable pattern of change in
vegetation and soil characteristics (a) Pioneer stage, with fireweed dominant
60
50
40
Soil nitrogen (g/m2)
30
20
10
0
Pioneer Dryas Alder Spruce