CHAPTER 48 RESPIRATORY SYSTEMS

Prepared by

Brenda Leady, University of Toledo

Copyright (c) The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Gas exchange moves carbon dioxide and oxygen between the air and blood and between blood and cells

Gases


Air is
21% oxygen 78% nitrogen Less than 1% carbon dioxide and other gases

Nitrogen gas usually ignored because it is not part of the respiratory process

Gas pressure
Atmospheric pressure pressure exerted by the atmosphere on the body surfaces of animals  Measure in mmHg or kPa


1kPa = 7.5 mmHg

Sea level = 760 mmHg  Atmospheric pressure decreases at higher elevations


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Atmospheric pressure is the sum of the partial pressure (pressures exerted by each gas in air) in proportion to their amounts PO2 = 0.21 x 760 mmHg = 160 mmHg Percentage of gases remain the same regardless of altitude, but lower atmospheric pressure results in lower partial pressures Diffusion is driven by partial pressure gradients Rate of oxygen diffusion into blood is lower at higher elevations
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Solubility of gases
Gases dissolve in solution fresh water, sea water or body fluids  Most gases dissolve poorly in water  Factors influencing solubility in water


Higher pressures will result in more gas in solution up to a limit for each gas Cold water holds more gas than warm water Other solutes decrease the amount of gas that dissolves into solution
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Types of respiratory organs

Few mechanisms for gas-exchange  Across the body surface  Across specialized organs like gills, tracheae, or lungs  Ventilation is the process of bringing oxygenated water or air into contact with a gas-exchange surface

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Adaptations for gas exchange

All respiratory organs share certain common features  Moist surfaces in which gases dissolve and diffuse  Increased surface area for gas exchange  Extensive blood flow  Thin, delicate structure

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Terrestrial vs. aquatic



Different challenges to gas exchange

Aquatic animals have less available oxygen When temperatures change in water, oxygen availability also fluctuates Terrestrial animals have to deal with desiccation of respiratory membranes Moving water of respiratory membranes takes more effort


Water is denser than air, removes heat from gill surface and can create osmotic movement
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Body surfaces for gas exchange

Invertebrates with one or a few cell layers can use diffusion for gas exchange  Some do not even need specialized transport mechanisms  Some large, complex animal body surfaces may be permeable to gases


Amphibians are the only vertebrates to rely on their skin for gas exchange under water
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External gills
Vary widely in appearance but all have a large surface area (extensive projections)  May exist in one body area or be scattered over a large area  Limitations


Unprotected and subject to damage Energy required to wave gills back and forth Appearance and motion may attract predators
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Internal gills
    

Fish gills are confined and protected within opercular cavity covered by the operculum Gill arches main support structure Filaments branch off of gill arches Lamellae branch off of filaments Blood vessels run the length of the filaments
Oxygen-poor blood travels through afferent vessel Oxygen-rich blood travels through efferent vessel

Countercurrent exchange arrangement of water and blood flow maximizes oxygen diffusion into blood
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2 mechanisms to ventilate gills



Buccal pumping hydrostatic pressure gradient created by lowering jaw to suck water in and opening operculum to draw water through
Flap of tissue prevents fish from swallowing water they inhale

Ram ventilation swimming with mouth open is more efficient  Many fish use both methods  Both are flow-through systems water moves unidirectionally

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Insect tracheae


    

Spiracles on the body surface lead to tracheae that branch into tracheoles terminating near every body cell Small amount of fluid for gas to diffuse into Muscular movements of body draw air into and out of tracheae Open circulatory system of insect not used in gas exchange Oxygen diffuses directly from air to tracheae to tracheoles to body cells Very efficient supports insect flight muscles with highest metabolic rate known
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Air-breathing lungs
With few exceptions, all air-breathing terrestrial vertebrates use lungs  Scorpions and some spiders have book lungs that resemble gills more  Lungs may be filled using positive or negative pressure  Lungs can be ventilated using tidal or flowthrough systems

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Most amphibians have lungs that are simple sacs Low surface area Ventilate lungs similar to buccal pumping of fish Boyles law relates gas volume and gas pressure
Decreased volume creates increased pressure

  

Lowers bottom jaw to create pressure gradient to suck air in Closes mouth to raise pressure and force air into lungs positive pressure filling A few species of reptiles also use positive pressure filling
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Mammalian respiratory systems

Nose and mouth air is warmed and humidified  Mucus in the nose cleans the air of dust  Pharynx  Larynx vocal cords  Trachea glottis (opening to trachea) protected by epiglottis, rings of cartilage, cilia and mucus trap particles  Lungs

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Trachea branches into 2 bronchi  Bronchioles surrounded by circular muscle to dilate or constrict passage  Alveoli site of gas exchange


One cell thick Coated with extracellular fluid for gases to dissolve Surfactant prevents alveoli from collapsing
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Pleural sac encases each lung

2 layers Fluid between layers acts as lubricant and makes layers adhere to each other Movements of chest wall will result in lung also moving Lungs will be inflated by expansion of the chest wall

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Negative pressure ventilation

Reptiles, birds, and mammals  Volume of lung expands, creating negative pressure, and air drawn into lungs  Mammals tidal ventilation


Inhalation intercostals contract to move chest wall up and out, diaphragm contracts and drops down thoracic cavity enlarges, pressure drops, air sucked in Exhalation intercostals and diaphragm relax thoracic cavity compressed, pressure increases, air pushed out
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Tidal volume volume of air normally breathed in and out at rest (~0.5L)  Lungs can be deflated or inflated further  Lungs never completely deflate


Held open by adherence to chest wall

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Avian lung
Flow-through system  Air sacs expand and shrink not lungs  Air sacs do not participate in gas exchange  Air enters trachea, 2 bronchi  Then parabronchi lungs


Regions of gas exchange Blood flows crosscurrent with respect to oxygen movement (not as good as fish but better than mammals)
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Schmidt-Nielsen Mapped Airflow in the Avian Respiratory System

  

 

Determined pattern of air movement using ostriches Air flows through trachea, down bronchi, and into posterior air sacs during inhalation As bird exhales, air exits posterior air sacs and flows into parabronchi from back to front in the lungs gas exchange occurs During next inhalation, air at anterior end of lungs flows into anterior air sac During second exhalation, air in anterior air sac exits body

Control of ventilation in mammals

 

Respiratory centers in several regions of the brainstem Signals travel from brain through
Intercostal nerves to intercostal muscles Phrenic nerves to diaphragm

Stretch receptors send signals to brain that lungs are inflated this inhibits stimulus to contract until exhalation Can be overridden to increase or decrease rate
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Chemoreceptors in aorta, carotid arteries and brainstem monitor

Hydrogen ions (pH) Partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide

Increase breathing rate if

Oxygen levels fall pH drops due to increased acid production from anaerobic metabolism or carbon dioxide from aerobic metabolism

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Carbon dioxide produced as waste product of metabolism  Carried in blood



66% as bicarbonate ions made reversibly by carbonic anhydrase in red blood cells 25% bound to hemoglobin 7-10% dissolved in solution in plasma and red blood cells

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Small animals have higher metabolic rates  Higher breathing rates to exchange enough gas


Respiratory centers set at a higher frequency

Similar to differences in cardiac output  Small animals have heart and lungs proportional to body size that must beat faster/breathe at a higher frequency to supply higher metabolic rate

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Oxygen transport
Not enough oxygen dissolves into blood to support metabolic needs  Respiratory pigments increase the amount of gas carried in solution


May be contained within red blood cells or in plasma Proteins with one or more metal ions

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Respiratory pigments


Hemoglobin iron Fe2+

4 protein subunits Each has a heme unit contains iron Single hemoglobin molecule binds up to 4 oxygen molecules


 

Hemocyanin copper Cu2+

All have a high affinity for oxygen Binding of oxygen is noncovalent and reversible
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Oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve

When PO2 is high, more O2 binds to hemoglobin  When PO2 is low, less O2 binds to hemoglobin  Sigmoidal curve due to cooperation shape of hemoglobin changes as oxygen loads and unloads

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Curve can shift in response to metabolic waste products

Increasing amounts of CO2, H+ and temperature make oxygen load and unload easier

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Curve can shift between species with different metabolic rates

Smaller animals unload hemoglobin more readily at any given temperature

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Hemoglobin Evolved over 500 Million Years Ago

   

Oxygen-carrying molecules appear to have begun as single-subunit proteins like myoglobin Gene duplication resulted in hemoglobin and in subunits of hemoglobin Mutations affect the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen Sickle-cell anemia single amino acid substitution forms long strands that deform red blood cell under low oxygen conditions leads to anemia Relationship between malaria and sickle-cell anemia in Africa

Malaria caused by Plasmodium falciparum growing and multiplying inside red blood cells Sickle-cell trait protects individual from developing full blown malaria Heterozygote advantage no pronounced anemia or severe malaria

Extreme conditions
High altitudes hemoglobin with higher affinity for oxygen, larger hearts and lungs than predicted for body size, higher number of red blood cells per volume  Extended diving high numbers of red blood cells, larger blood volumes, large amounts of myoglobin (spare oxygen for critical structures lacking myoglobin)

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Impact on public health



Asthma
Muscles around bronchioles are hyperexcitable May have genetic basis

Smoking
One of leading global causes of death Up to 85% of all new cases of lung cancer each year attributed to smoking In addition to its effects on cancer, cardiovascular disease, and lung function, longterm smoking is the major cause of emphysema
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Emphysema
Involves extensive lung damage Reduces elastic quality of lungs and total surface area of alveoli Reduced blood oxygen and poor lung function Several causes Over 85% of cases due to smoking

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Pneumonia
Infectious disease most often caused by viruses, bacteria or other microorganisms that enter lungs and multiply Fluid buildup interferes with gas exchange Bacterial form vaccine, antibiotics Viral form run its course Usually not serious in healthy people
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