JOURNEY TO RESEARCH

How To Make A Research Proposal

By: DR. ROSHIMA SAID ACCOUNTING DEPARTMENT UiTM KEDAH

What is Research?


Research is simply the process of thoroughly studying and analyzing the situational factors surrounding a problem in order to seek out solutions to the problems identified (Cavana, Delahaye and Sekaran, 2001) Research is an organized, systematic, databased, critical, objective, scientific inquiry or investigation into a specific problem or issue with the purpose of finding solutions to it or clarifying it.

Why makes people do research?

    

To expand our understanding of the world around us. to overcome and solve particular existing problems. To discover new facts To verify and test important facts To analyze an event or process or phenomenon to identify the cause and effect relationship. To develop new scientific tools, concepts and theories to solve and understand scientific and nonscientific problems.

Types of Research- APPLIED RESEARCH



APPLIED RESEARCH= to solve a current problem that faced by an organizations that demand a timely solution. Research done with the intention of applying the results to solve specific problems currently being experiences in the business.  Eg., a particular product may not selling well and the manager may want to find reasons.

Types of Research -BASIC RESEARCH/THEORETICAL RESEARCH

BASIC RESEARCH= to generate a body of knowledge by trying to comprehend how certain problems that occur in organizations can be solved. Some organizations may later apply the knowledge gained by the findings of basic research to solve their own problems. Most research and development departments in industry, and academics in university do basic or fundamental research, so that more knowledge is generated in particular areas of interest to industries, organizations and researchers.


Eg. A university lecturer may be interested in investigating the factors that contribute to staff absenteeism as a matter of mere academic interest. Later, a manager who encounters employee absenteeism may be able to use this information to determine if the factors are relevant to the particular work setting

Differences between Applied and Basic Research

BASIC RESEARCH Seeks generalization APPLIED RESEARCH Studies individual or specific cases without the objective to generalize Aims at any variable which makes the desired difference Tries to say how things can be changed Tries to correct the facts which are problematic Reports in common language

Aims at basic processes

Attempts to explain why things happen Tries to get all the facts

Reports in technical language of the topic

SOME BASIC DEFINITIONS



Observations = perceptions of reality and can be expressed in the form of facts or opinions.


A fact is an observations that represents a universal truth, and can be supported by measurable evidence. Eg. height and weight. An opinion is a persons belief about phenomenon. For eg. A researcher may use series of interviews to ascertain peoples opinions on a product for marketing or advertising purposes.

SOME BASIC DEFINITIONS- contd



A concept is an idea expressed as a symbol or in words ( Neuman, 1997). Concepts are general representations of ideas to be studied and become the building blocks of a research project (Ticehurst & Veal, 1999).
In physical sciences, symbols are often used to communicate an idea. Eg. H2O  In social sciences, a relatively abstract idea may be communicated by a word or phrase. Eg. Self directed learning communicates a relatively abstract idea of a way of learning


SOME BASIC DEFINITIONS- contd



A concept that can be operationalised is called a variable. A researcher operationalises a concept so that it can be observed and measured.

Types of research methods/ Approaches to research



Quantitative Research


Quantitative research are used within the positivist research paradigm. The hallmarks of good research are seen as objective observation, precise measurements, statistical analysis and verifiable truths. Hypotheses are tested, means that to find the expected solution to the problem or challenge.

Types of research methods/ Approaches to

research


Qualitative Approach


Qualitative research believe that humans are complex, somewhat unpredictable beings and that individual differences and idiosyncratic (a way of behaving, thinking, or feeling that is peculiar to an individual or group, especially an odd or unusual one) needs override any notion universal laws of human behaviour. The aim of qualitative research is to discover how humans construct meanings in their contextual setting. Qualitative research reveals peoples values, interpretative schemes, mind maps, belief systems and rules of living so that the respondent's reality can be understood.

Research with Subjects (Quantitative Vs Qualitative)

Research with Subjects (Quantitative) 1. What do I know about a problem that will allow me to formulate and test a hypothesis? 2. What concepts can I use to test this hypothesis? 3. How can I operationally define these concepts? 4. What scientific theory can explain the data? Research with Informants (Qualitative) 1. What do my informants know about their culture that I can discover?

2. What concepts do my informants use to classify their experiences? 3. How do my informants define these concepts? 4. What folk theory do my informants use to explain their experience?

5. How can I interpret the results and report them in the language of my colleagues?

5. How can I translate the cultural knowledge of my informants into a cultural description my colleagues will understand?

Inductive Vs. Deductive Reasoning

Develop Theory

Formulate Hypotheses

Collect and analyze data

Deductive Reasoning Quantitative Approach

Accept/Reject hypotheses

Inductive Vs. Deductive Reasoningcontd

Develop theory

Formulate relationship

Analyze patterns and themes Inductive - Qualitative Approach Observe phenomena

Content of Research Proposal



CHAPTER 1
   

Background of the study Problem Statement (Research Problems) Research Objectives Research Questions Literature Review  Terms and definition  Literature Review of your subject matter  Hypotheses Development  Theoretical / Conceptual Framework

CHAPTER 2


Content of Research Proposal- contd



CHAPTER 3


Research Methodology  Research Design  Unit analysis

 

Population Sample size

Conceptualization of your variables ( Measurement of Variables)


   

Dependent variables = subject matter Independent Variables Moderating Variables Mediating Variables

Statistical Techniques SPSS, E-VIEWS etc

The Research Process

1. 2.

3. 4.

5.

6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Identify and develop your area of interest and topic. Preliminary information gathering and literature survey Problem definition= find the problem statement Framework development= conceptual or theoretical framework Research objectives, research questions and development of hypotheses Research design Data Collection = quantitative and qualitative Data analysis = quantitative and qualitative Interpretation of findings Report preparation and presentation

1. Identify and develop your area of interest and topic

Research Process 1. Identify and develop your area of interest and topic


Test the main concepts or keywords in your topic by looking them up in the appropriate background sources or by using them as search terms in library catalogue and in periodical indexes. If you are finding too much information and too many sources, narrow your topic. Area of interest marketing, human resource, corporate governance, management accounting, information system, education, banking etc. Eg: Education, narrow your topic to accounting education, then narrow your topic to employer demands of accounting graduation.

Research Process 1. Identify and develop your area of interest and topic
Corporate Governance

Human Resource

Human Resources Strategies and its impact on firms performance

Corporate Governance mechanism and Corporate Social Responsibility Disclosure

1.Preliminary information gathering and literature survey

LITERATURE REVIEW

Research Process 2. Preliminary information gathering and literature survey



 

Preliminary information gathering involves the search information in depth concerning the observed phenomenon. It can be done through observation or talking informally to several people in the work setting or to clients or other relevant sources. Unstructured interviews. Library research

Research Process 2. Preliminary information gathering and literature survey



What is literature review?  As a piece of writing, the literature review must be defined by guiding concept  A literature review is a review of reading materials of what has been published on a topic by previous scholars and researcher.  The purpose of LR is to convey to the reader what knowledge and ideas have been established on a topic, and what their strengths and weaknesses are. What you gain from literature Review? Information seeking: the ability to scan the literature efficiently, using manual or computerized efficiently, to identify a set of useful articles and books. Critical Appraisal: the ability to apply principles of analysis to unbiased and valid studies.

Research Process 2. Preliminary information gathering and literature survey



A literature Review must do these things:

be organized around and related directly to the thesis or research question you are developing.  Synthesis results into a summary of what is and not known- a-state-of-the-art.  Identify areas of controversy in the literature.  Formulate questions that need further research.


Research Process 2. Preliminary information gathering and literature survey

 Why
    

you need a good literature review?

To demonstrate that you know the field. Justifies the reason for your research. Allows to establish your theoretical framework. Allows to establish a good methodological approach. To find the gaps exists in your research.

Research Process 2. Preliminary information gathering and literature survey



How to write a good literature Review?



It is a purposeful kind of writing which is to be

        

Well argued Well supported evidence Well documented A straightforward style= use clear and simple English appropriate for your audience. Try to explain and relate with what are you doing in your research. Critically arguing the points. Giving examples. Evaluating or assessing the value of other arguments or the sufficiency of evidence. You should use the literature to explain your research. Your aim should be to show why your research needs to be carried out, how you came to choose certain methodologies or theories to work with, how your work adds to the research already carried out.

Documents


Documents inclusive of General Sources Newspapers, magazines, etc Secondary Sources Books, research evaluations, etc Primary Sources Journal, abstract, etc

Questions to ask about your literature review.

You need to answer these questions:  What is the specific thesis, problem, or research question that my literature review helps to define?  What type of literature review am I conducting? Am I looking at issues of theory? methodology? policy? quantitative research (e.g. on the effectiveness of a new procedure)? qualitative research (e.g., studies)?

Questions to ask about your literature review.



What is the scope of my literature review? What types of publications am I using (e.g., journals, books, government documents, popular media)? What discipline am I working in (e.g., accounting, organizational behaviour, sociology, medicine)?

Questions to ask about your literature review.



 

How good was my information seeking? Has my search been wide enough to ensure I've found all the relevant material? Has it been narrow enough to exclude irrelevant material? Is the number of sources I've used appropriate for the length of my paper?

Questions to ask about your literature review.

Have I critically analysed the literature I use? Do I follow through a set of concepts and questions, comparing items to each other in the ways they deal with them? Instead of just listing and summarizing items, do I review them, discussing strengths and weaknesses?

Questions to ask about your literature review.



Have I cited and discussed studies contrary to my perspective? Will the reader find my literature review relevant, appropriate, and useful?

Writing the literature



Your aim should be to show why your research needs to be carried out, how you came to choose certain methodologies or theories to work with, and how your work adds to the research already carried out.
   

explaining something, arguing the point, giving examples, evaluating or assessing the value of other arguments or the sufficiency of evidence?

Writing the literature



What you are doing (topic) affects the language you use. Candidate don't exploit verbs fully, relying on just one or two favourites (for example 'mentions', 'states', 'suggests', 'discusses') or overworking the weaker verbs ('have', 'be').

Writing the literature



Verbs such as 'judges', 'postulates', 'excludes', 'convinces', 'confuses', 'questions', 'advances (the argument)', 'verifies', provide a stronger interpretation of your reading, understanding, and opinion of the research.

Writing the literature

 

Active or passive voice Both active and passive voice should be used - where appropriate. (OrYou should use, where appropriate, both active and passive voice!) As a general rule, use active voice unless there is good reason not to

Writing the literature

 

Tenses The tense that suits your purpose is the tense you use. Clearly, an event, be it a survey, an experiment, a study of some kind, done by other researchers or by you, has to be in the past and it is usual to use the past tense to describe it. However discussing about research findings, evaluations, recommendations and conclusions present.

Research Process 2. Preliminary information gathering and literature survey

 Look

at how published writers review the literature. You'll see that you should use the literature to explain your research. You are not writing a literature review just to tell your reader what other researchers have done. Your aim should be to show why your research needs to be carried out, how you came to choose certain methodologies or theories to work with, and how your work adds to the research already carried out.

Research Process 2. Preliminary information gathering and literature survey



EXAMPLES OF WRITING LITERATURE REVIEW Debreceny et al. (2002) find that voluntary adoption of corporate disclosure in 22 countries is associated with company size and listing on an U.S. stock exchange, but not with leverage, risk and Internet penetration in the countries. This study in opposition to Ettredge et. al (2002) distinguishes between presentation format and disclosure content. It finds that the level of technology and disclosure environment are associated with presentation format, but not with content. However, the study does not distinguish the disclosures of mandatory versus non-mandatory items.

Research Process 2. Preliminary information gathering and literature survey

EXAMPLES OF WRITING LITERATURE REVIEW
Corporate social responsibility report is to create sustainable relationships with the stakeholders groups that are employees, shareholders, customers and suppliers, wider community, investors and regulators. One way to reduce the gaps between company and its stakeholders is by reporting the activities to the stakeholders or through additional disclosure. Many studies had used corporate social disclosure as a proxy to corporate social responsibility or corporate social performance (Gray et al. ,1995; Hackston and Milne ,1996; Adebayo ,2000; Gray et al. ,2001 ; Manasseh ,2004; Shaw Warn ,2004; Haniffa and Cooke, 2005; Guan Yeik ,2006; Mohammad Zain and Janggu ,2006; Hasnah et.al, 2006).

Research Process 2. Preliminary information gathering and literature survey

EXAMPLES OF WRITING LITERATURE REVIEW


The bulk of previous work on the effect of HRM on firm performance has focused on the domestic operations of US firms. However, human assets may be an even more important determinant of the performance of foreign subsidiaries of multinational corporations in countries in transition like Russia since foreign firms often want local employees to change their behavioral patterns and carefully thoughtout HRM policies are needed to accomplish this task. As a result, several authors have suggested that human resource management policies are especially critical to a firms success in Russia (Fey et al., 1999; Longenecker and Popovski, 1994; May et al., 1998; Puffer, 1993, Radko and Afanasieva, 1999; Welsh et al., 1993). Further, compared to Western countries, relatively few employees in Russia are trained in modern market-oriented work practices (Shekshnia, 1994).

Research Process 2. Preliminary information gathering and literature survey

EXAMPLES OF WRITING LITERATURE REVIEW a-state-of-the-art
Dependent Variables ( Information Disclosure) Haniffa and Cooke (2005) -Culture (3 variables): Malay - Corporate Social Disclosure dominated board of directors, (Corporate Social Disclosure Malay finance director, Malay Index and CSD items dominated shareholders. expressed in terms of number -Composition of nonof executive director, Words ) chairperson with multiple directorship, ownership by foreign shareholders, -Firms size, profitability, gearing, multiple listing and industry type. Barnea and Rubin (2004) Ownership structure ( insiders and institutional investors) - Broad market Social Index (BMSI) Author (s) Variables What makes this study different than others? The conceptualization of culture in this study includes the proportion of Malay executive directors to total executives directors This study used culture as a moderating variable instead of independent variables. This study used two sources of data namely annual report and companies websites.

This study used various corporate governance characteristics namely Board size, Board Independence, CEO Duality ,Audit Committee ,Ownership concentration, Managerial Ownership, Foreign Ownership, Government Ownership as independent variables. - This study will use two sources of data namely annual report and companies websites.

Research Process 2. Preliminary information gathering and literature survey

EXAMPLES OF WRITING LITERATURE REVIEW a-state-of-the-art Author
1.

Hackston and Milne (1996)

Documents analyzed Annual Report and accounts only

Measurement of CSR Content Analysis No of sentences

Themes Environment Human Resources Products Energy Community General/other Environment Human Resources Products Community Value Added

2.

Haniffa and Cooke (2005)

Annual Report and accounts only

Content Analysis Number of words CSD Index

Background of the study and Problem definition/ Problem statement

Research Process 3. Background of the study and Problem definition/ Problem statement


At this stage, the researcher can usually convert the original catalyst of a problem or opportunity into a tentative research definition. The students/candidates problems are to find the real problems of their research and develop the problem statement.

Research Process 3. Background of the study and Problem definition/ Problem statement


Problem statement is something that the researcher has an interest/ real problem/ or filling the gaps about phenomenon. Ensure that the research problem that you identified is really a problem. How??? =Background of the Study
 

Find evidence= shows statistics or Literature review from past researchers

Research Process 3. Background of the study and Problem definition/ Problem statement
Start with your Background of the study Show statistics that the problems are really exist. Show evidence from past studies/ LR.

Find the problems and state in a statement

Research Process 3. Background of the study and Problem definition/ Problem statement


Background of the study  Stress on main subject matter (dependent variable).  For example: Firms performance of companies. Find statistics or evidence that showed that performance of Malaysian companies are seriously poor.  For example: Service quality of public hospital. Find statistics or evidence that showed service quality of Malaysian public hospital are seriously poor, many complaints of negligence etc.  For example: Corporate social responsibility (CSR) disclosure. Find statistics or evidence showed that CSR disclosure of Malaysian public listed companies are poor, less reporting.

Research Process 3. Background of the study and Problem definition/ Problem statement
Background of the study (example)  Malaysian companies show little evidence of awareness of corporate social responsibility, with only one company so far having reflected its social responsibilities within its corporate mission. The findings, published in ACCA Malaysias study State of Corporate Environmental and Social Reporting in Malaysia 2004, showed that few companies made reference to any sort of social or environmental policy statement within its reporting. According to the study, 43% of the companies reviewed reported to some extent on social performance, with 26% promising that they would do so in the future. For many Malaysian companies, commitment to CSR is expressed in term of charitable giving (Business Respect, 2004).

Research Process 3. Background of the study and Problem

definition/ Problem statement
Background of the study (example)
Country India South Korea Thailand Singapore Malaysia Philippines Indonesia Seven Country Mean UK JAPAN The Penetration of CSR Reporting in Asia Source: Chambers, Moon and Sullivan (2003). % of CSR Companies in the Top 50 Companies per Country 72% 52% 42% 38% 32% 30% 24% 41% 98% 96%

Research Process 3. Background of the study and Problem definition/ Problem statement


State in a problem statement. The research problem of this study is to investigate why some of the Malaysian Public Listed Companies (PLCs) disclose more corporate social responsibilities than others and to what extent does the corporate governance characteristics influence the corporate social responsibility disclosure, and find whether the Board of directors culture (ethnicity) moderates the relationship between corporate governance characteristics and CSR disclosure.

Research Problem/ Problem Statement- example

The purpose of this project is to create four different WebQuests which employ constructive active learning pedagogy, teach higher order thinking skills, and that introduce feminist issues to 6th -8th grade art students. I will pilot the WebQuests over a period of 3 months and document student written responses, my observations of their process, and student WebQuest products in order to evaluate student learning and interest in the feminist technological art curriculum.

Research Process 4. Framework development



An attempt to integrate all the information in a logical manner, so that the reason for the research problem can be conceptualized and tested. In this step, the critical concepts and/or variables are examined for their contribution to influence in explaining why the research problems occurred and how it can be solved. If the findings from preliminary information and literature review are mainly concepts, then a conceptual framework is developed. If the findings consist almost entirely variables, then a theoretical framework is developed.

Research Process 4. Framework development



A theoretical framework is a collection of interrelated concepts, like a theory but not necessarily so well worked-out. A theoretical framework guides your research, determining what things you will measure, and what statistical relationships you will look for. A framework offers a model of how to make logical sense of the relationships among the several factors that have been identified as important to the problem.

Variables and Theoretical Framework



As a first stage in outlining a theoretical framework, the researcher categorizes the variables. There 4 main types of variables.


 

The dependent variable ( also known as the criterion variable) The independent variable ( also known as the predictor variable) The moderating variable The intervening/ mediating variable.

Variables and Theoretical Framework Dependent Variables (DV)



The dependent variable is the variable of primary interest to the researcher. In other words, it is the main variable that lends itself as a viable factor for investigation. For this purpose, the researcher will be interested in quantifying and measuring the dependent variable and the other variable (Independent Variables) that influence DV.

Variables and Theoretical Framework Independent Variables (IV)



Independent variable is one that influences the dependent variable in either a positive or negative way. In each unit of increase in independent variable, there is an increase or decrease in the dependent variable.

Variables and Theoretical Framework



Eg. 1 : Cross cultural research indicates that managerial values govern the power distance between superiors and subordinates. Eg. 2 : Research studies indicate that successful new product development has an influence on the share market price of the company. Eg. 3 : The research indicate that organizational culture, training, staff education, staff experience have an influence on productivity of the organization.

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Corporate Governance

Culture

Corporate Social Responsibility

Firms performance

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
Corporate Governance Mechanism Ownership structure Managerial Ownership Government Ownership Board of director Board size Board Independence

Culture Board of directors ethnicity Malay domination BOD Chinese domination BOD
Firms performance Financial Performance Net profit margin Return on asset Return on capital;

Corporate Social Responsibility

Corporate Social disclosure

Independent Variables

Dependent Variable

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
Corporate Governance Mechanism Ownership structure Managerial Ownership Government Ownership Board of director Board size Board Independence

Corporate Social Responsibility

Corporate Social disclosure

Culture Board of directors ethnicity Malay domination BOD Chinese domination BOD

Firms performance Financial Performance Net profit margin Return on asset Return on capital;

Independent Variables

Moderating Variables

Dependent Variab

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
Corporate Governance Mechanism Ownership structure Managerial Ownership Government Ownership Board of director Board size Board Independence

Firms performance Financial Performance Net profit margin Return on asset Return on capital;

Corporate Social Responsibility

Corporate Social disclosure

Culture Board of directors ethnicity Malay domination BOD Chinese domination BOD

Independent Variables Mediating Variables

Dependent Variable

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
Corporate Governance Mechanism Ownership structure Managerial Ownership Government Ownership Board of director Board size Board Independence

Culture Board of directors ethnicity Malay domination BOD Chinese domination BOD
Firms performance Financial Performance Net profit margin Return on asset Return on capital;

Corporate Social Responsibility

Corporate Social disclosure

Independent Variables

Dependent Variable

Research objectives, research questions and hypotheses

Research Process 5. Research objectives, research questions and hypotheses



Once the problem or opportunity has been placed within an appropriate conceptual or theoretical context, the research objectives can be formulated. From the research objectives, we construct research questions and hypothesis. For qualitative research=


research objectives and research questions.

research objectives research questions hypotheses

For quantitative research =



Research Objectives
 

The purpose of your study. To solve the problem to find answers to the research questions. This will be a guide to your research hypotheses and conceptual framework.

Research Objectives


    

Should be stated in the form that can answer your research questions. For example: To identify.. (Untuk mengenalpasti..) To investigate.. (Untuk menyiasat) To examine..(Untuk mengkaji) To explore (Untuk mengetahui) etc.

5. Research objectives, research questions and hypotheses (examples)

Research Objectives


To examine the level of corporate social responsibility disclosure made by Malaysian Public Listed companies for the year ended 2006. To determine the level of corporate social responsibility disclosure by themes for Public Listed Companies in Malaysia for the year ended 2006. To investigate whether a relationship exists between corporate governance characteristics (Board size, Board Independence, CEO Duality, Audit Committee, Ownership concentration, Managerial Ownership, Foreign Ownership, Government Ownership) and corporate social responsibility disclosure in Malaysian Public Listed Companies for the year ended 2006.

Research Questions


Questions about the problems that you would like to know more by solving this problem. What are the issues would you like to know / understand or highlight. There are three types of questions

Research Questions


What .(descriptive frequency or test of differences) Apa? How(relationship influence, effect etc) Bagaimana? Why. (causal relationship experimental) Kenapa?

5. Research objectives, research questions and hypotheses (examples)

Research Questions


What is the level of corporate social responsibility disclosure made by Malaysian Listed companies for the year ended 2006? What is the level of disclosure by theme for Malaysian Public Listed Companies for the year ended 2006? What is the relationship between corporate governance mechanism (Board size, Board Independence, CEO Duality, Audit Committee, Ownership concentration, Managerial Ownership, Foreign Ownership, Government Ownership) and corporate social responsibility disclosure in Malaysian Listed Companies for the year ended 2006?

Research Design and Methodology

    

Research Design Sampling Design Unit of Analysis Design of Questionnaire Measurement of variables
   

Dependent Variable Independent Variable Moderating Variable Mediating/Intervening Variable

Statistical Techniques

Research Design

A research design is a framework or blueprint for conducting the business research project. It details the procedures necessary for obtaining the information needed to structure or solve research problems. Understanding the importance of planning and designing approaches or techniques used in research processes. The extent of scientific rigor in a research study depends on how clearly the variables can be defined and on how carefully the researcher has chosen the appropriate design alternatives. It is important to note that the more sophisticated and rigorous the research design, the greater the time, cost and other resources expended on the study.

Research Design
  

Purpose of the study Types of investigation Unit of analysis (population to be studied) Time Horizon

Purpose of the study



This is the stage to decide the research approaches whether a qualitative or quantitative approach will be used. The researcher need to decide whether the investigation will be exploratory, descriptive or hypotheses testing.

Purpose of the study

Exploratory study  Exploratory study is undertaken when little is known about the situation at hand, or when no information is available on how similar problems or research issues have been resolved in the past.  Extensive preliminary work ( interviews, observations, or focus groups )needs to be done to gain familiarity with the phenomena in the situation, and understand what is occurring , before develop a model and set up a rigorous

Purpose of the study

Descriptive study Descriptive study is undertaken in order to ascertain and be able to describe the characteristics of the variables of interest in a situation. Descriptive studies are undertaken in an organizations in order to learn about and describe the characteristics of a particular group, example employee. For example the age, education level, job status of an employees of an organization.

Descriptive study -contd

Descriptive studies that present data in a meaningful form help researcher to

Understand the characteristics of a group in a given situation. Think systematically about aspects in a given situation. Offers ideas for further research. Make certain simple decisions (eg., how many and what types of individual should be transferred from one department to another).

Need a combination of qualitative and quantitative data in terms of frequencies, or mean, std. deviations becomes necessary for descriptive studies.

Purpose of the study

Hypothesis Testing  Hypothesis testing usually explain the nature of certain relationships, or establish the differences among groups or the independence of two or more factors in a situation. Case Studies  The researcher is systematically gathers in depth information on a single entity, an individual, a group, an organization or community- using a variety of data gathering methods.

The Appropriate Research Method

Little information or knowledge of situation or research topic Extensive information or knowledge of situation or research topic

Exploratory Observation Unstructured Interview Unstructured Focus Groups

Descriptive Structured Interview Structured focus group Questionnaire

Hypothesis Testing Structured questionnaire Field Experiment Laboratory Experiment

TYPE OF INVESTIGATION


There are 3 investigation path to follow

  

Clarification Correlational Causal

TYPE OF INVESTIGATION


In a Clarification investigation, the researcher is trying to gain a clearer understanding of the concepts involved in the research problem. Exploratory and descriptive studies often follow this path. Once a clear understanding of the concepts is achieved, the researchers interest turns to the relationship between concepts and variables. ( Here the researcher should differentiate between correlational and causal) A correlational relationship indicates that at least two concepts or variables move simultaneously. A causal relationship indicates that one concept or variable causes a movement in another concept or variable.

 

TYPE OF INVESTIGATION= eg

Whether a study is causal or correlational thus depends on the type of research questions asked and how the problem is defined. A causal study question: Does smoking cause cancer? A correlational study question:
Are smoking and cancer related? Are smoking, drinking and chewing tobacco associated with cancer? If so, which of these contributes most to the variance in the dependent variable?

Unit of analysis (population to be studied)

   

Individuals Dyads Organisations Cultures

Unit of analysis- contd



The unit of analysis refers to the level of aggregation of the data collected during the subsequent data analysis stage. Our research objectives and problems determines the unit of analysis. If we wish to study how to raise the motivational levels of employees in general, then we are interested in individual employees in organization.- Unit of analysis is individual. Two-person relationship or interactions, for example husband and wife relationship or supervisor and subordinate relationships in the workplace are the best examples of dyad as unit of analysis

Unit of analysis- contd



If the problem statement and objective is related to group effectiveness, then the unit of analysis will be the group in particular organization.

Time Horizon: Cross Sectional Vs. Longitudinal Studies



A study can be carried out in which data are gathered just once or one short perhaps period of days, weeks, months or years. Longitudinal studies take more time and effort and cost more than cross sectional studies.

Sampling Design
1. What is the relevant target population of focus to the study? 2. What exactly are the parameters we are interested in studying? 3. What kind of sampling frame is available? 4. Should Probability or non-probability sampling method be chosen? 5. What is the sample size needed?

6. What costs are attached to the sampling? 7. How much time can be spent in collecting the data from the sample?

Sampling Design


POPULATION= Refers to the entire group of people, events or things of interest that the researcher wishes to investigate.  Example , If the CEO of computer company wants to know the kinds of advertising strategies adopted by computer company in Melbourne, then the population of the study consists of all computer company situated in Melbourne. ELEMENT= An element is a single member of the population. If 10,000 blue collar workers in a particular organisation happen to be the population of interest to a researcher, then each single blue collar worker therein will be the element.

Sampling Design


Sampling Frame= The sampling is a listing of all the elements in the population from which the sample is drawn. Sample=A sample is a subset of the population. It comprises some members selected from the population. In other words some but not all the elements of the population form sample.  Eg., If 200 members are drawn from a population of 1000 blue collar workers, these 200 members form the sample for the study. ( the 200 samples would draw conclusions about the entire population)

Sampling Design


POPULATION
Sampling Frame Sample

Subject Element

Sampling Design
Judgment Quota Non-probability design Convenience Judgment

Simple Random Sampling Probability design Complex Probability Sampling Area Systematic Stratified Double Cluster

Important of sampling design and sample size



The sampling design and sample size are important to establish the representativeness of the sample for the generalisability. Too large sample size will lead to Type 11 Errors.

Rules of thumb for determining sample size



Roscoe Rules of Thumb  Sample size larger than 30 and smaller than 500 are appropriate for most research.  Where sample are to be broken into subsample (eg. Female and male) a minimum sample size of 30 for each category is usually necessary.  In multivariate research (including multiple regression) the sample size should be several time ( preferably 10 time or more) as large as the number variable in the study.  For experimental research with tight experimental controls (eg match pair) need sample size as small as 10 to 20.

Rules of thumb for determining sample size



Tabachnick and Fidel (2001, p. 72) in Pallant (2005) give a formula for calculating sample size requirements, taking into account the number of independent variables, N= 50+8m ( where m= number of independent variables).

HYPOTHESES DEVELOPMENT
Hypothesis


Once the important variables in a situation and established the relationships among independent and dependent variables through logical reasoning in theoretical framework, the researcher are in the position to test whether the relationships that have been theorized do, in fact hold true. By testing the relationships scientifically through appropriate statistical analyses, we are able to obtain reliable information on what kinds of relationship exist among variables operating in the problem situation. Formulating such testable statements is called hypothesis development.

HYPOTHESES DEVELOPMENT
Hypothesis definition  A hypothesis can be defined as a logically conjectured relationship between two or more variables expressed in the form of a testable statement.  By testing the hypothesis and confirming the conjectured relationships, it is expected that solutions can be found to correct the problem encountered.  A hypothesis can also test whether there are differences between two groups or more groups with respect to any variable or variables.  To examine whether or not the conjectured relationships or differences exist, these hypotheses can be put either as propositions or in the form of ifthen statements.


Eg: Employees who are more healthy will take sick leave less frequently. Eg.: If employees are more healthy, then they will take sick leave less frequently.

HYPOTHESES DEVELOPMENT
Directional and non-directional Hypothesis Directional= stating the r/ship in terms of positive or negative, more than or less than are used.  Eg.: The greater the stress experienced in the job, the lower the job satisfaction of employee.  Eg: Women are more motivated then men. Non-directional= postulate a relationship or difference but offer no indication of the direction of these relationships or differences.  Eg.: There is a relationship between age and job satisfaction.  Eg. : There is a difference between the work ethic values of Australian and New Zealand.

HYPOTHESES DEVELOPMENT
Null and Alternate Hypothesis Null hypothesis is a proposition that states a definitive, exact relationship between the two variables .  In general the null hypothesis is expressed as no (significant) relationship between two variables or no (significant) difference between two groups.  Eg. : There is no significant difference between work ethic values of Australian and New Zealand. Alternate Hypothesis is opposite to null hypothesis.  It is a statement expressed a relationship between two variables or indicating the differences between groups.  Eg.: There is a difference between the work ethic values of Australian and New Zealand.

REFERENCES


Cavana., R. , Delahaye, B and Sekaran, U (2001) Applied Business Research:Qualitative and Quantitative Methods. John Wiley & Sons Australia, Milton

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