For IB Physics

By the end of the section you will be able to:

E2.1 State that fusion is the main energy of stars E2.2 State that in a stable star there is an equilibrium between radiation and gravitational pressure E2.3 Define the LUMINOSITY of a star E2.4 Define APPARENT BRIGHTNESS and state how it is measured E2.5 Apply the Stefan-Boltzmann law to compare the luminosities of different stars E2.6 State Weins (displacement) law and apply it explain the connection between the colour and temperature of stars E2.7 Explain how atomic spectra may be used to deduce chemical and physical data for the stars E 2.8 Describe the overall classification system of spectral classes E 2.9 Describe different types of star E2.10 Discuss the characteristics of spectroscopic and eclipsing binaries E2.11 Identify the general regions of star types in the HertzsprungRussell (HR)diagram

The sun radiates 1026 J/s! Process is FUSION

(not burning!)

2 H atoms become 1 Helium 1% of the mass is converted to energy E=mc2 Mass lost of sun is 4x109kg/s (calc energy) Some stars have different reactions (see later)

Gas and radiation is emitted at a huge rate Radiating for the last 4.5 billion years Gravitation pull drags the particles back Forces stable at the moment Some escape in prominences and solar wind This type of nuclear reactions will carry on for about another 5 billion years

Defined as the TOTAL ENERGY EMITTED PER SECOND J/s. This of course is the POWER of the star so the unit is the Watt (W) A very luminous star could be faint to the naked eye if it is a long way away The hotter and bigger the star the more Luminous Least Luminous star known :Proxima Centauri
- Type=M5, Magnitude=11.0, Distance=4.22 ly This dim red dwarf is the nearest star to the Sun, and it is a member of the Alpha Centauri system lies 0.24 light years from the main pair of stars, requiring over one million years to orbit them. It is also a flare star - capable of brightening a magnitude or more in minutes.

A team of astronomers from the University of Florida have found what could be the brightest star ever seen in the Universe. Located 45,000 light years away across our galaxy, LBV 1806-20 could be 40 million times brighter and 150 times larger than our own Sun. This gigantic and bright star isnt long for the Universe; however, its only a couple of million years old, and will blow up as a supernova in a few million more. But dont expect to find the star which is at least 5 million times brighter than the sun in the night sky. Dust particles between Earth and the star block out all of its visible light. Whereas the sun is located only 8.3 light minutes from Earth, the bright star is 45,000 light years away, on the other side of the galaxy. It is detectable only with instruments that measure infrared light, which has longer wavelengths that can better penetrate the dust

 If 2 stars are the same distance from the Earth the one with the greatest luminosity would be brightest It is possible for 2 different stars to have the same brightness how? Double the distance square the area
Distance inversely proportional to brightness Called inverse square law
(Solve for distance and Luminosity)

Brightness measured by using digital camera and measuring the pd & energy Astronomers use magnitude scale to compare - 1 is brighter than 3

(Calculations!)

Hot objects emit light If an object is a perfect emitter all its energy is seen as radiation Black Body Radiation Stars are almost perfect emitters Peak wavelength (max energy) is related to temperature by Wiens displacement Law We can then calculate the temperature of the star by analysing the radiation

Once we have the temperature of the star we can calculate the Luminosity we have the by StefanBoltzmann Law:

A hot object radiates its energy as radiation over the continuous spectra Atoms of a gas have electrons in specific energy levels The electrons jump to higher energy levels when heated and become excited They fall back to the original level giving out particular packages, or quanta of energy of specific wavelength If the gas is between the light source and the earth the lines are subtracted from the continuous spectra We can analyse the gases in the outer levels of the sun or star the radiation from the core shines through it

The thousands of Fraunhofer lines see in the Suns spectra can tell us what substances are present Also by studying the lines we can identify the energy needed to produce them and therefore the temperature of the gas The same can be done for stars which show quite different spectral lines particularly looking at the hydrogen lines We can therefore analyse the light from a star to get chemical composition, surface temperature, luminosity and surface area of the star. Only distance to go!

The spectra can show evidence of the Doppler Effect Redshifted stars are moving away from us The amount of change of the characteristic absorption lines the faster it is travelling

By spectral class we can work out the properties of different classes of stars

Giants and Super giants

Very large in size Red Comparatively cool The later stages in the life of a star By spectral

White Dwarfs
Small in size and white in colour As they are white they are very hot They are at the almost the final stage fusion is no longer happening is a remnant cooling down They cool enough for light not to be seen a brown dwarf

Main Sequence stars

90% of stars in the prime of their life our Sun is an example

Variables
Have changing luminosity due changing size. Cepheid variables have a link between the period of variation and average luminosity This means the absolute luminosity in nearby galaxies can be calculated and from this the distance.

A log scale of the luminosity of the star (or absolute magnitude) is plotted against the spectral class (or decreasing temperature non linear scale) There is a band down the middle with 90% of the stars main sequence. These burn hydrogen Stars at the end of their life are on either side

Many stars are binary and orbit each other about a common centre of mass A visual binary can be seen as 2 stars close together in a telescope - Sirius A&B. 10% of stars seen from Earth A spectroscopic binary can be detected by the blue and red shifting of its light periodically An eclipsing binary gets in the way of its partner and there is a dip in brightness periodically-Algol

Orbiting binaries follow Newtons laws of motion (see Fields and Forces topic) We can calculate their masses from these formulas If they are viewed as satellites in a circular orbit:

GMm/r2= mw2r
If they are equal mass

mA + mB = 4 2r3/GT2

Where m is their masses, r the radius, T time period and G the gravitational constant, w is 2 /T