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Connective tissue with a matrix hardened by minerals Four components Bones Cartilage Tendons Ligaments
http://www.wpunj.edu/sec/APskel.htm
Bone
Surrounded by periosteum Membrane of tissue and cells essential for bone growth, repair and nutrition Hard connective tissue Living cells and dense mineralized matrix of calcium salt deposits around collagen fibers Bone matrix Inorganic (1/3 ): ): Hydroxyapatite (calcium phosphate crystal) provides weightweight-bearing strength Organic (2/3): (2/3): Collagen provides flexible strength Proteoglycans
Bone adapts to tension and compression by varying proportions of minerals and collagen fibers
Clinical Conditions
Osteomalacia Soft bones Causes can include insufficient dietary calcium Insufficient vitamin D insufficient exposure to sunlight Digestive disorders which prevent absorption of fat soluble Vitamin D Rickets Signs include bowed legs and deformities of the pelvis, ribs and skull More detrimental because bones are still growing
Osteoporosis
Most common bone disease Bones lose mass & become brittle due to loss of both organic matrix & minerals risk of fracture of hip, wrist & vertebral column fatal complications, ex. pneumonia widows (dowagers) hump: deformed spine Postmenopausal white women at greatest risk by age 70, average loss is 30% of bone mass Over age 45, occurs in: 29% of women http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rHyeZhcoZc 18% of men Q&feature=related
http://pennhealth.com/health_info/animationplayer/osteoporosis.html
Effects of Osteoporosis
Risk factors include sedentary lifestyle, low calcium intake, being underweight Best treatment: prevention -- exercise & adequate calcium (1000 mg/day) and Vitamin D intake throughout life
Bone Histology
Bone can be classified according to amount of bone matrix relative to amount of space present within bone
Cancellous bone Inner layer of spongy bone with many spaces Compact bone Dense, solid outer layer with few spaces
BONE CELLS
Make up only 2% of bone mass: osteocytes Osteoblasts Osteoprogenitor cells Osteocytes
Mature bone cells Maintain bone matrix Help repair damaged bone Live in lacunae Between layers (lamellae) of matrix (lamellae) Connected by canaliculi cytoplasmic extensions in lamellae
Osteoblasts
Initiate process of calcification (ossification or osteogenesis) osteogenesis) Surround themselves with bone matrix to become osteocytes Osteoid
Matrix produced by osteoblasts, but not yet calcified to form bone
Osteoclasts
Break down bone Secretes acids and protein-digesting enzymes proteinthat dissolves bone matrix and release stored minerals (osteolysis) for resorption (osteolysis)
Osteoprogenitor Cells
Mesenchymal stem cells that divide to produce osteoblasts Located in inner, cellular layer of periosteum Assist in fracture repair
CompactBone
Cells and hard mineralized matrix surround vertically oriented blood vessels in osteons or Haversian canels in long bones Lamellae combine to form trabeculae Circumferential lamellae form outer surface of compact bones Concentric lamellae surround central canals, forming osteons Interstitial lamellae are remnants of lamellae left after bone remodeling
Osteons
Haversian and other canals within compact bone provide means for exchange of gases, nutrients, and waste products
Perforating canals Carry blood vessels into bone and marrow
From periosteum to central canals
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4qTi w8lyYbs&feature=related
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c5zcGv8MvMc&feature=related
Marrow
Soft tissue that occupies medullary cavity of a long bone or the spaces within the trabeculae of spongy bone Yellow Marrow fatty marrow of long bones in adults Gelatinous marrow of old age yellow marrow replaced with reddish jelly Red Marrow
Marrow
Red marrow looks like thick blood mesh of reticular fibers and immature cells Hemopoietic: produces blood cells found in vertebrae, ribs, sternum, pelvic girdle and proximal heads of femur and humerus in adults has blood vessels supplies nutrients to osteocytes
Bone Anatomy
1. Long bones
Longer than wide Upper & lower limbs
2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
Flat bones Sutural bones Irregular bones Short bones Sesamoid bones
Flat Bones Thin, flattened and slightly curved Sutural Bones Scapulae, sternum, shoulder blades, ribs and Small, irregular most bones of skull bones Resembles sandwich of Found between flat spongy bone between 2 bones of skull layers of compact bone
Irregular Bones
Have complex shapes Examples:
vertebrae pelvic girdle Sphenoid Facial bones
Cartilage
Next to bone, firmest structure in body Avascular - diffusion must bring in nutrients & remove wastes injured cartilage heals slowly Grows by appositional and interstitial growth Matrix contains collagen fibers (for strength) and proteoglycans (trap water) Covered by membrane, perichondrium: perichondrium: outer, fibrous layer (for strength)
contains fibroblasts
Cartilage
Major types determined by fibers Hyaline Fibrocartilage Elastic Chondroblasts
produce cartilage and become chondrocytes
Hyaline Cartilage
Clear, glassy matrix; fine dispersed collagen fibers Forms most of skeleton before replaced by bone in embryo Involved in growth that increases bone length
Hyaline Cartilage
Found in areas for strong support and some flexibility Eases joint movements; ends of bones at movable joints, sternal ends of ribs Supportive material in airways, trachea and bronchi, fetal skeleton
Contains collagen fibers continuous with ligaments, tendons, and fibers that penetrate bone matrix
Bone Histology
Calcification: Process of depositing calcium salts Occurs during bone ossification and in other tissues
Ossification:
Process of replacing other tissues with bone
(Osteogenesis) Osteogenesis)
1. Osteoblasts are on a preexisting surface, such as cartilage or bone. Cell processes of different osteoblasts join together 2. Osteoblasts produce bone matrix and become osteocytes
Fig. 6.3
Bone Development
Osteogenesis: bone formation Osteogenesis: Human bones grow until about age 25 Bones increase in length by interstitial cartilage growth at epiphyseal plate & appositional bone growth on surface of cartilage width by appositional growth beneath periosteum
Bone Development
Begins at week 8 of embryo development 2 main forms of ossification: intramembranous ossification
bone develops from a fibrous membrane Some skull bones, part of the mandible, and the diaphyses of the clavicles
Bone Development
Intramembranous Ossification
Within the membrane, at centers of ossification, osteoblasts produce bone along the membrane fibers to form cancellous bone Beneath the periosteum, osteoblasts lay down compact periosteum, bone to form the outer surface of the bone Fontanels are areas of membrane that are not ossified at birth
Bones formed by intramembranous ossification are yellow and bones formed by endochondral ossification are blue Fig. 6.7
Endochondral Ossification
Uses hyaline cartilage bones as models for bone construction Requires breakdown of hyaline cartilage prior to ossification The perichondrium covering the hyaline cartilage bone is infiltrated with blood vessels, converting it to a vascularized periosteum The increase in nutrition transforms the underlying osteochondral progenitor cells into osteoblasts Formation of bone collar around the diaphysis of the hyaline cartilage model
Bone Development
Endochondral Ossification cont. Blood vessels grow into the calcified cartilage, bringing osteoblasts and osteoclasts from the periosteum
The primary ossification center formed as osteoblasts lay down bone matrix
Medullary cavity forms Appearance of secondary ossification centers in the epiphyses Ossification of the epiphyses, with hyaline cartilage remaining only in the epiphyseal plates
BONE FORMATION
Bone
development begins in fetus at about 2 to 3 months of development Secondary ossification centers appear about 1 month before birth
Bone Growth
Growth in Bone Length
Bone length increases because of growth at the epiphyseal plate Epiphyseal plate growth involves
Interstitial growth of cartilage Followed by appositional bone growth on the cartilage
Epiphyseal plate growth results in an increase in the length of the diaphysis and bony processes
Ossification of bone
The calcified cartilage on the diaphyseal side of the plate is replaced by bone
Epiphyseal Lines
Bone growth in length ceases when the epiphyseal plate becomes ossified and forms epiphyseal line - after puberty: epiphyseal cartilage disappears visible on X-rays as an epiphyseal line X-
Epiphyseal Plates
Bone Growth
Growth at Articular Cartilage
Involves the interstitial growth of cartilage followed by appositional bone growth on the cartilage Results in larger epiphyses and an increase in the size of bones that do not have epiphyseal plates
Bone Growth
Homeostasis
Bone building (osteoblasts) and bone recycling (osteoblasts) (osteoclasts) must balance: osteoclasts)
If more breakdown than building, bones become weak
Bone Remodeling
Athletes bones visibly thicker and heavier than nonathletes Up to 1/3 of bone mass can be lost in a few weeks of inactivity Bone constantly removed by osteoclasts and new bone formed by osteoblasts Remodeling converts woven bone to lamellar bone and allows bone to
Change shape Adjust to stress Repair itself Regulate body calcium levels
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BrI7Ra5FTus&f eature=related
Calcium Homeostasis
Bone is the major storage site for calcium in body
99% of bodys calcium is in skeleton
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xc8C5ECWPvI&feature=related
Calcitriol
Hormonally active form of vitamin D
made in kidneys synthesis requires vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol)
stimulates intestine to absorb calcium, phosphate & magnesium weakly promotes urinary reabsorption of calcium ions promotes bone resorption
Calcitonin
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yFJ4iswRiu4
Secreted by thyroid Rising blood Ca2+ levels trigger the thyroid to release calcitonin Decreases blood calcium levels by:
inhibiting osteoclast activity (by as much as 70% in 15 minutes) increasing calcium excretion at kidneys Decreasing calcitriol production reducing intestinal Ca absorption
Stress fracture is a break caused by abnormal trauma to a bone car accident, fall, athletics, etc Pathological fracture is a break in a bone weakened by some other disease bone cancer or osteoporosis
Treatment of Fractures
Closed reduction fragments are aligned with manipulation & casted Open reduction surgical exposure & repair with plates & screws Traction is not used in elderly due to risks of long-term longconfinement to bed hip fractures are pinned & early walking is encouraged Electrical stimulation is used on fractures that take longer than 2 months to heal Orthopedics = prevention & correction of injuries and disorders of the bones, joints & muscles
Fracture Repair
Bone Repair
1. Hematoma formation
Torn blood vessels hemorrhage A mass of clotted blood (hematoma) forms at the fracture site Site becomes swollen, painful, and inflamed
External callus
forms collar around break
Capillaries grow into the tissue and phagocytic cells begin cleaning debris
Axial skeleton These bones protect, support and carry other body parts Appendicular skeleton Involved in movement and manipulation of the environment
Skeletal Organization
Axial Skeleton skull neck trunk Appendicular Skeleton upper limbs lower limbs pectoral girdle pelvic girdle
Axial Skeleton
Sinuses Air
spaces Make skull lighter Gives voice tone and resonance Lined with tissue that secretes mucus
Axial Skeleton
Rib Cage:
Sternumbreastbone is composed of the Sternum manubrium (the handle), the body (the blade), and the xiphoid process. Twelve pairs of ribsconnect to the thoracic ribs vertebrae in the back. Thoracic vertebraeprotects the spinal cord. vertebrae
10-15
column consists of 33
vertebrae. Atlas1st cervical vertebrae & holds Atlas up the head. Cervical vertebraeseven neck vertebrae (cervical) vertebrae. Thoracic vertebraetwelve chest vertebrae vertebrae. Lumbar vertebraefive abdominal vertebrae vertebrae. Sacrumfive fused vertebrae. (solid Sacrum bone) Coccyxfour fused vertebrae forming Coccyx the tailbone.
Kyphosis
curvature becomes exaggerated posteriorly Causes include osteoporosis or compression fracture affecting anterior portions of vertebral bodies
Thoracic
Lordosis Swayback
abdomen and buttocks protrude abnormally due to anterior exaggeration of lumbar curvature
Both
Scoliosis
lateral curvature of spine Most common disorder of spinal curvature Causes include developmental problems,1-sided muscular problems,1paralysis Usually appears in girls during adolescence, when growth most rapid Treatment: exercises, braces, surgical modification
Abnormal
Appendicular Skeleton
Wide
Appendicular Skeleton
Supports
weight of
of attachment for