Control and Accounting Information Systems

CHAPTER 6
Control and Accounting Information Systems
INTRODUCTION
Questions to be addressed in this chapter:
What are the basic internal control concepts, and why are computer control and security important? What is the difference between the COBIT, COSO, and ERM control frameworks? What are the major elements in the internal environment of a company? What are the four types of control objectives that companies need to set? What events affect uncertainty, and how can they be identified? How is the Enterprise Risk Management model used to assess and respond to risk? What control activities are commonly used in companies? How do organizations communicate information and monitor control processes?
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INTRODUCTION
Why AIS Threats Are Increasing
Control risks have increased in the last few years because:
There are computers and servers everywhere, and information is available to an unprecedented number of workers. Distributed computer networks make data available to many users, and these networks are harder to control than centralized mainframe systems. Wide area networks are giving customers and suppliers access to each other s systems and data, making confidentiality a major concern.
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INTRODUCTION
Historically, many organizations have not adequately protected their data due to one or more of the following reasons:
Computer control problems are often underestimated and downplayed. Control implications of moving from centralized, host-based computer systems to those of a networked system or Internet-based system are not always fully understood. Companies have not realized that data is a strategic resource and that data security must be a strategic requirement. Productivity and cost pressures may motivate management to forego time-consuming control measures.
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INTRODUCTION
Some vocabulary terms for this chapter:
A threat is any potential adverse occurrence or unwanted event that could injure the AIS or the organization. The exposure or impact of the threat is the potential dollar loss that would occur if the threat becomes a reality. The likelihood is the probability that the threat will occur.
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INTRODUCTION
Control and Security are Important
Companies are now recognizing the problems and taking positive steps to achieve better control, including:
Devoting full-time staff to security and control concerns. Educating employees about control measures. Establishing and enforcing formal information security policies. Making controls a part of the applications development process. Moving sensitive data to more secure environments.
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INTRODUCTION
To use IT in achieving control objectives, accountants must:
Understand how to protect systems from threats. Have a good understanding of IT and its capabilities and risks.
Achieving adequate security and control over the information resources of an organization should be a top management priority.
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INTRODUCTION
Control objectives are the same regardless of the data processing method, but a computer-based AIS requires different internal control policies and procedures because:
Computer processing may reduce clerical errors but increase risks of unauthorized access or modification of data files. Segregation of duties must be achieved differently in an AIS. Computers provide opportunities for enhancement of some internal controls.
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INTRODUCTION
One of the primary objectives of an AIS is to control a business organization.
Accountants must help by designing effective control systems and auditing or reviewing control systems already in place to ensure their effectiveness.
Management expects accountants to be control consultants by:

Taking a proactive approach to eliminating system threats; and Detecting, correcting, and recovering from threats when they do occur.
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INTRODUCTION
It is much easier to build controls into a system during the initial stage than to add them after the fact. Consequently, accountants and control experts should be members of the teams that develop or modify information systems.
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OVERVIEW OF CONTROL CONCEPTS

In today s dynamic business environment, companies must react quickly to changing conditions and markets, including steps to:
Hire creative and innovative employees. Give these employees power and flexibility to:
Satisfy changing customer demands; Pursue new opportunities to add value to the organization; and Implement process improvements.
At the same time, the company needs control systems so they are not exposed to excessive risks or behaviors that could harm their reputation for honesty and integrity.
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Internal control is the process implemented by the board of directors, management, and those under their direction to provide reasonable assurance that the following control objectives are achieved:
Assets (including data) are safeguarded. This objective includes prevention or timely detection of unauthorized acquisition, use, or disposal of material company assets.
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Assets (including data) are safeguarded. Records are maintained in sufficient detail to accurately and fairly reflect company assets.
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Assets (including data) are safeguarded. Records are maintained in sufficient detail to accurately and fairly reflect company assets. Accurate and reliable information is provided.
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Assets (including data) are safeguarded. Records are maintained in sufficient detail to accurately and fairly reflect company assets. Accurate and reliable information is provided. There is reasonable assurance that financial reports are prepared in accordance with GAAP.
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Assets (including data) are safeguarded. Records are maintained in sufficient detail to accurately and fairly reflect company assets. Accurate and reliable information is provided. There is reasonable assurance that financial reports are prepared in accordance with GAAP. Operational efficiency is promoted and improved. This objective includes ensuring that company receipts and expenditures are made in accordance with management and directors authorizations.
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Assets (including data) are safeguarded. Records are maintained in sufficient detail to accurately and fairly reflect company assets. Accurate and reliable information is provided. There is reasonable assurance that financial reports are prepared in accordance with GAAP. Operational efficiency is promoted and improved. Adherence to prescribed managerial policies is encouraged.
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Assets (including data) are safeguarded. Records are maintained in sufficient detail to accurately and fairly reflect company assets. Accurate and reliable information is provided. There is reasonable assurance that financial reports are prepared in accordance with GAAP. Operational efficiency is promoted and improved. Adherence to prescribed managerial policies is encouraged. The organization complies with applicable laws and regulations.
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Internal control is a process because:
It permeates an organization s operating activities. It is an integral part of basic management activities.
Internal control provides reasonable, rather than absolute, assurance, because complete assurance is difficult or impossible to achieve and prohibitively expensive.
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Internal control systems have inherent limitations, including:
They are susceptible to errors and poor decisions. They can be overridden by management or by collusion of two or more employees.
Internal control objectives are often at odds with each other.

EXAMPLE: Controls to safeguard assets may also reduce operational efficiency.
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OVERVIEW OF CONTROL CONCEPTS Internal controls perform three important functions:

Preventive controls
Deter problems before they arise.
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Preventive controls Detective controls
Discover problems quickly when they do arise.
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Preventive controls Detective controls Corrective controls
Remedy problems that have occurred by: Identifying the cause; Correcting the resulting errors; and Modifying the system to prevent future problems of this sort.
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OVERVIEW OF CONTROL CONCEPTS Internal controls are often classified as:

General controls
Those designed to make sure an organizations control environment is stable and well managed. They apply to all sizes and types of systems. Examples: Security management controls.
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OVERVIEW OF CONTROL CONCEPTS Internal controls are often classified as:

General controls Application controls
Prevent, detect, and correct transaction errors and fraud. Are concerned with accuracy, completeness, validity, and authorization of the data captured, entered into the system, processed, stored, transmitted to other systems, and reported.
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OVERVIEW OF CONTROL CONCEPTS An effective system of internal controls should exist in all organizations to:
Help them achieve their missions and goals Minimize surprises
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SOX AND THE FOREIGN CORRUPT PRACTICES ACT

In 1977, Congress passed the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act, and to the surprise of the profession, this act incorporated language from an AICPA pronouncement. The primary purpose of the act was to prevent the bribery of foreign officials to obtain business. A significant effect was to require that corporations maintain good systems of internal accounting control.
Generated significant interest among management, accountants, and auditors in designing and evaluating internal control systems. The resulting internal control improvements weren t sufficient.
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SOX AND THE FOREIGN CORRUPT PRACTICES ACT In the late 1990s and early 2000s, a series of multi-million-dollar accounting frauds made headlines.
The impact on financial markets was substantial, and Congress responded with passage of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 (aka, SOX).
Applies to publicly held companies and their auditors
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SOX AND THE FOREIGN CORRUPT PRACTICES ACT The intent of SOX is to:
Prevent financial statement fraud Make financial reports more transparent Protect investors Strengthen internal controls in publicly-held companies Punish executives who perpetrate fraud
SOX has had a material impact on the way boards of directors, management, and accountants operate.
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Important aspects of SOX include:
Creation of the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board (PCAOB) to oversee the auditing profession.
Has five members, three of whom cannot be CPAs. Charges fees to firms to fund the PCAOB. Sets and enforces auditing, quality control, ethics, independence, and other standards relating to audit reports. Currently recognizes FASB statements as being generally accepted.
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Creation of the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board (PCAOB) to oversee the auditing profession. New rules for auditors
They must report specific information to the companys audit committee, such as: Critical accounting policies and practices Alternative GAAP treatments Auditor-management disagreements Audit partners must be rotated periodically.
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Auditors cannot perform certain non-audit services, such as: Bookkeeping Information systems design and implementation Internal audit outsourcing services Management functions Human resource services
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Permissible non-audit services must be approved by the board of directors and disclosed to investors. Cannot audit a company if a member of top management was employed by the auditor and worked on the companys audit in the past 12 months.
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Creation of the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board (PCAOB) to oversee the auditing profession. New rules for auditors New rules for audit committees
Members must be on the companys board of directors and must otherwise be independent of the company. One member must be a financial expert. The committee hires, compensates, and oversees the auditors, and the auditors report directly to the committee.
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SOX AND THE FOREIGN CORRUPT PRACTICES ACT The CEO and CFO must certify that:
The financial statements and disclosures are fairly Important aspects of SOX include: presented, were reviewed by management, and are not misleading. Creation of the Public Company Accounting Oversight Management is responsible for internal controls. Board (PCAOB) to oversee the auditing profession. The auditors were advised of any material internal control New rules for auditors weaknesses or fraud. New rules for auditchanges to controls after managements Any significant committees evaluation management New rules for were disclosed and corrected.
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If management willfully and knowingly violates the certification, they of be: Important aspectscan SOX include: Imprisoned Creation of the up to 20 years. Accounting Oversight Public Company Fined up to Board (PCAOB) $5 million. the auditing profession. to oversee Management and directors cannot receive loans that would not New rules for auditorsoutside the company. be available to people They must disclose on a rapid and New rules for audit committees current basis material changes to their financial condition. New rules for management
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SOX AND THE FOREIGN CORRUPT PRACTICES New internal control requirements: ACT
Section 404 of SOX requires companies to issue a report accompanying the financial statements that: Important aspects of SOX include: States management is responsible for Creation of the Public Company Accounting Oversight internal establishing and maintaining an adequate Board (PCAOB) to oversee the auditing profession. control structure and procedures. auditors New rules for Contains managements assessment of the companys internal controls. New rules for audit committees Attests to the accuracy of the internal controls, New rules for including disclosures of significant defects or management New internal materialrequirements found during the tests. control noncompliance
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Creation of the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board (PCAOB) to oversee the auditing profession. New rules for auditors SOX also requires that the auditor attests to and reports New rules managements internal control assessment. on for audit committees Newrules for management describe the scope of the Each audit report must auditors internal control tests. New internal control requirements
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After the passage of SOX, the SEC further mandated that:
Management must base its evaluation on a recognized control framework, developed using a due-process procedure that allows for public comment. The most likely framework is the COSO model discussed later in the chapter. The report must contain a statement identifying the framework used. Management must disclose any and all material internal control weaknesses. Management cannot conclude that the company has effective internal control if there are any material weaknesses.
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SOX AND THE FOREIGN CORRUPT PRACTICES ACT Levers of Control

Many people feel company core values to employees and there is a basic conflict between Communicates creativity and controls. them. inspires them to live by Draws attention to how the organization creates Robert Simons has espoused four levers of value. Helps employees understand managements intended controls to help companies reconcile this conflict: direction.
A Must be belief system to appeal to all levels. concise broad enough
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SOX AND THE FOREIGN CORRUPT PRACTICES ACT Helps employees act ethically by setting limits beyond
which they must not pass. Levers of Control rules and standard operating Does not create procedures that can stifle creativity. Many people feel there is a basic conflict between Encourages employees to think and act creatively to creativity and controls. customer needs as long as solve problems and meet they operate within limits such as: Robert Simons has espoused four levers of Meeting minimum standards of performance controls to help companies reconcile this conflict: Shunning off-limits activities A concise belief system could damage the companys Avoiding actions that reputation. A boundary system
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SOX AND THE FOREIGN CORRUPT PRACTICES ACT Levers of Control

Ensures efficient and effective achievement between Many people feel there is a basic conflict of important controls. creativity and controls. This system measures company progress by comparing actual to planned espoused four levers of Robert Simons has performance. Helps managers track critical performance outcomes controls to help companies reconcile this conflict: and monitor performance of individuals, departments, A and locations. system concise belief A Provides feedback to enable management to adjust and boundary system Afine-tune. control system diagnostic
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SOX AND THE FOREIGN CORRUPT PRACTICES Helps top-level managers with high-level activities that ACT
demand frequent and regular attention. Examples: Developing company strategy. Levers ofSetting company objectives. Control Manypeople feel there is a basic threats and risks. Understanding and assessing conflict between Monitoring changes creativity and controls. in competitive conditions and emerging technologies. Robert Simons has espoused four levers of Developing responses and action plans to proactively deal with these high-level issues. controls to help companies reconcile this conflict: Also helps managers A concise belief system focus the attention of subordinates on key strategic issues and to be more involved in their A boundary system decisions. A diagnostic this system are best interpreted and Data from control system discussed in face-to-face meetings.
An interactive control system
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CONTROL FRAMEWORKS
A number of frameworks have been developed to help companies develop good internal control systems. Three of the most important are:
The COBIT framework The COSO internal control framework COSO s Enterprise Risk Management framework (ERM)
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COBIT Framework
Also know as the Control Objectives for Information and Related Technology framework. Developed by the Information Systems Audit and Control Foundation (ISACF). A framework of generally applicable information systems security and control practices for IT control.
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The COBIT framework allows:
Management to benchmark security and control practices of IT environments. Users of IT services to be assured that adequate security and control exists. Auditors to substantiate their opinions on internal control and advise on IT security and control matters.
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To satisfy business objectives, information must conform to certain criteria referred to as business requirements for The framework addressesinformation. of control the issue The criteria are divided into from three vantage points or dimensions: seven distinct yet overlapping categories that map into COSO Business objectives objectives: Effectiveness (relevant, pertinent, and timely) Efficiency Confidentiality Integrity Availability Compliance with legal requirements Reliability
CONTROL FRAMEWORKS
CONTROL FRAMEWORKS
The framework addresses the issue of control from three vantage points or dimensions:
Business objectives IT resources
Includes:
People Application systems Technology Facilities Data
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The framework addresses the issue of control from three vantage points or dimensions:
Business objectives IT resources IT processes
Broken into four domains Planning and organization Acquisition and implementation Delivery and support Monitoring
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COBIT consolidates standards from 36 different sources into a single framework. It is having a big impact on the IS profession.
Helps managers to learn how to balance risk and control investment in an IS environment. Provides users with greater assurance that security and IT controls provided by internal and third parties are adequate. Guides auditors as they substantiate their opinions and provide advice to management on internal controls.
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COSO s Internal Control Framework
The Committee of Sponsoring Organizations (COSO) is a private sector group consisting of:
The American Accounting Association The AICPA The Institute of Internal Auditors The Institute of Management Accountants The Financial Executives Institute
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In 1992, COSO issued the Internal Control Integrated Framework:
Defines internal controls. Provides guidance for evaluating and enhancing internal control systems. Widely accepted as the authority on internal controls. Incorporated into policies, rules, and regulations used to control business activities.
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COSO s internal control model has five crucial components:
- Control environment
The core of any business is its people. Their integrity, ethical values, and competence make up the foundation on which everything else rests.
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- Control environment - Control activities
Policies and procedures must be established and executed to ensure that actions identified by management as necessary to address risks are, in fact, carried out.
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- Control environment - Control activities - Risk assessment
The organization must be aware of and deal with the risks it faces. It must set objectives for its diverse activities and establish mechanisms to identify, analyze, and manage the related risks.
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Control environment Control activities Risk assessment Information and communication
Information and communications systems surround the control activities. They enable the organizations people to capture and exchange information needed to conduct, manage, and control its operations.
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Control environment Control activities Risk assessment Information and communication Monitoring
The entire process must be monitored and modified as necessary.
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Nine years after COSO issued the preceding framework, it began investigating how to effectively identify, assess, and manage risk so organizations could improve the risk management process. Result: Enterprise Risk Manage Integrated Framework (ERM)
An enhanced corporate governance document. Expands on elements of preceding framework. Provides a focus on the broader subject of enterprise risk management.
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Intent of ERM is to achieve all goals of the internal control framework and help the organization:
Provide reasonable assurance that company objectives and goals are achieved and problems and surprises are minimized. Achieve its financial and performance targets. Assess risks continuously and identify steps to take and resources to allocate to overcome or mitigate risk. Avoid adverse publicity and damage to the entity s reputation.
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ERM defines risk management as:
A process effected by an entity s board of directors, management, and other personnel Applied in strategy setting and across the enterprise To identify potential events that may affect the entity And manage risk to be within its risk appetite In order to provide reasonable assurance of the achievement of entity objectives.
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Basic principles behind ERM:
Companies are formed to create value for owners. Management must decide how much uncertainty they will accept. Uncertainty can result in:
Risk
The possibility that something will happen to: Adversely affect the ability to create value; or Erode existing value.
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Basic principles behind ERM:
Companies are formed to create value for owners. Management must decide how much uncertainty they will accept. Uncertainty can result in:
Risk Opportunity
The possibility that something will happen to positively affect the ability to create or preserve value.
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The framework should help management manage uncertainty and its associated risk to build and preserve value. To maximize value, a company must balance its growth and return objectives and risks with efficient and effective use of company resources.
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COSO developed a model to illustrate the elements of ERM.
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Columns at the top represent the four types of objectives that management must meet to achieve company goals.
Strategic objectives Strategic objectives are high-level goals that are aligned with and support the companys mission.
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Columns at the top represent the four types of objectives that management must meet to achieve company goals.
Strategic objectives Operations objectives Operations objectives deal with effectiveness and efficiency of company operations, such as: Performance and profitability goals Safeguarding assets
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CONTROL FRAMEWORKS help Reporting objectives

ensure the accuracy, completeness, and reliability Columns at the top represent of internal and of objectives the four types external company reports of both a financial and that management must meet non-financial nature. to achieve company goals. Improve decision-making and monitor company activities and Strategic objectives performance more efficiently. Operations objectives Reporting objectives
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Compliance objectives help Columns at the top representthe company comply with the four types of objectives applicable laws and that management must meet regulations. to achieve company goals. External parties often set Strategic objectives rules. the compliance Companies in the same Operations objectives Reporting objectives industry often have similar concerns in this area. Compliance objectives
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ERM can provide reasonable assurance that reporting and compliance objectives will be achieved because companies have control over them. However, strategic and operations objectives are sometimes at the mercy of external events that the company can t control. Therefore, in these areas, the only reasonable assurance the ERM can provide is that management and directors are informed on a timely basis of the progress the company is making in achieving them.
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Columns on the right represent the company s units:
Entire company
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Entire company Division
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Entire company Division Business unit
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Entire company Division Business unit Subsidiary
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The horizontal rows are eight related risk and control components, including:
Internal environment The tone or culture of the company. Provides discipline and structure and is the foundation for all other components. Essentially the same as control environment in the COSO internal control framework.
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Internal environment Objective setting
Ensures that management implements a process to formulate strategic, operations, reporting, and compliance objectives that support the companys mission and are consistent with the companys tolerance for risk. Strategic objectives are set first as a foundation for the other three. The objectives provide guidance to companies as they identify risk2/10/2012 creating events and assess and respond to those risks.
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Internal environment Objective setting Event identification Requires management to identify events that may affect the companys ability to implement its strategy and achieve its objectives. Management must then determine whether these events represent: Risks (negative-impact events requiring assessment and response); or Opportunities (positive-impact events that influence strategy and objective-setting processes). 2/10/2012
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Identified risks are assessed to determine how to manage them and how they affect the companys ability to achieve its objectives. Qualitative rows are eight The horizontaland quantitative methods are control related risk and used to assess risks individually and by components, including: category in terms of: Internal environment Likelihood Objective setting negative Positive and Event identification impact Risk assessment Effect on other organizational units Risks are analyzed on an inherent and a residual basis. Corresponds to the risk assessment element in COSOs internal control framework.
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Management aligns identified risks with the companys tolerance for risk by choosing to: Avoid Reduce The horizontal rows are eight Share related risk and control Accept components, including: Management takes an entity-wide Internal environment or portfolio view of risks in Objective setting assessing the likelihood of the Event identification risks, their potential impact, and costs-benefits of alternate Risk assessment responses. Risk response
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To implement managements The horizontal rows are eight risk risk and control relatedresponses, control policies and procedures are established components, including:
and implemented throughout Internal environment the various levels and Objective setting functions of the organization. Event identification Corresponds to the control activities element in the COSO Risk assessment internal control framework. Risk response Control activities
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Information about the company and ERM components must be identified, captured, and communicated so employees can fulfill their responsibilities. Information must be able to The horizontal rows are eight flow risk and control related through all levels and functions in the company as components, including: from well as flowing to and external parties. Internal environment Objective setting Employees should understand their role and importance in Event identification ERMassessment these Risk and how responsibilities relate to those Risk response of others. Control activities Has a corresponding element in the COSO internal control Information and communication framework.
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The horizontal rows are eight related risk and control ERM processes must be components, including:
monitored on an ongoing basis Internal environment and modified as needed. Objective setting Accomplished with ongoing Event identification management activities and Risk assessment separate evaluations. Risk response Deficiencies are reported to Control activities management. Information and Corresponding module in communication COSO internal control framework. Monitoring
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The ERM model is three-dimensional. Means that each of the eight risk and control elements are applied to the four objectives in the entire company and/or one of its subunits.
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ERM Examining controls withoutInternal Control and Framework Vs. the first examining purposes risks of business processes provides little context for Framework the results. evaluating
The internal control framework has been widely Makes it difficult to know: Which the principal are to evaluate internal adopted as control systemswaymost important. Whether they adequately deal with risk. controls as required by SOX. However, there are issuesWhether important control systems are missing. with it.
It has too narrow of a focus.
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ERM Framework Vs. the Internal Control Framework
The internal control framework has been widely adopted as the principal way to evaluate internal controls as required by MayHowever,to protect with SOX. contribute to systems there are many controls issues with it. against risks that are no longer
important. It has too narrow of a focus. Focusing on controls first has an inherent bias toward past problems and concerns.
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These issues led to COSO s development of the ERM framework.
Takes a risk-based, rather than controls-based, approach to the organization. Oriented toward future and constant change. Incorporates rather than replaces COSO s internal control framework and contains three additional elements:
Setting objectives. Identifying positive and negative events that may affect the company s ability to implement strategy and achieve objectives. Developing a response to assessed risk.
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Controls are flexible and relevant because they are linked to current organizational objectives. ERM also recognizes more options than simply controlling risk, which include accepting it, avoiding it, diversifying it, sharing it, or transferring it.
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Over time, ERM will probably become the most widely adopted risk and control model. Consequently, its eight components are the topic of the remainder of the chapter.
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INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT
The most critical component of the ERM and the internal control framework. Is the foundation on which the other seven components rest. Influences how organizations:
Establish strategies and objectives Structure business activities Identify, access, and respond to risk
A deficient internal control environment often results in risk management and control breakdowns.
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Internal environment consists of the following:
Management s philosophy, operating style, and risk appetite The board of directors Commitment to integrity, ethical values, and competence Organizational structure Methods of assigning authority and responsibility Human resource standards External influences
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Management s Philosophy, Operating Style, and Risk Appetite
An organization s management has shared beliefs and attitudes about risk. That philosophy affects everything the organization does, long- and short-term, and affects their communications. Companies also have a risk appetite, which is the amount of risk a company is willing to accept to achieve its goals and objectives. That appetite needs to be in alignment with company strategy.
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The more responsible management s philosophy and operating style, the more likely employees will behave responsibly. This philosophy must be clearly communicated to all employees; it is not enough to give lip service. Management must back up words with actions; if they show little concern for internal controls, then neither will employees.
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This component can be assessed by asking questions such as:
Does management take undue business risks or assess potential risks and rewards before acting? Does management attempt to manipulate performance measures such as net income? Does management pressure employees to achieve results regardless of methods or do they demand ethical behavior?
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The Board of Directors
An active and involved board of directors plays an important role in internal control. They should:
Oversee management Scrutinize management s plans, performance, and activities Approve company strategy Review financial results Annually review the company s security policy Interact with internal and external auditors
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Directors should possess management, technical, or other expertise, knowledge, or experience, as well as a willingness to advocate for shareholders. At least a majority should be independent, outside directors not affiliated with the company or any of its subsidiaries.
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Public companies must have an audit committee, composed entirely of independent, outside directors.
The audit committee oversees:
The company s internal control structure; Its financial reporting process; Its compliance with laws, regulations, and standards.
Works with the corporation s external and internal auditors.

Hires, compensates, and oversees the auditors. Auditors report all critical accounting policies and practices to the audit committee.
Provides an independent review of management s actions.
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Commitment to Integrity, Ethical Values, and Competence
Management must create an organizational culture that stresses integrity and commitment to both ethical values and competence.
Ethical standards of behavior make for good business. Tone at the top is everything. Employees will watch the actions of the CEO, and the message of those actions (good or bad) will tend to permeate the organization.
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Companies can endorse integrity as a basic operating principle by actively teaching and requiring it.
Management should:
Make it clear that honest reports are more important than favorable ones.
Management should avoid:

Unrealistic expectations, incentives or temptations. Attitude of earnings or revenue at any price. Overly aggressive sales practices. Unfair or unethical negotiation practices. Implied kickback offers. Excessive bonuses. Bonus plans with upper and lower cutoffs.
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Management should not assume that employees would always act honestly.
Consistently reward and encourage honesty. Give verbal labels to honest and dishonest acts. The combination of these two will produce more consistent moral behavior.
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Management should develop clearly stated policies that explicitly describe honest and dishonest behaviors, often in the form of a written code of conduct.
In particular, such a code would cover issues that are uncertain or unclear. Dishonesty often appears when situations are gray and employees rationalize the most expedient action as opposed to making a right vs. wrong choice.
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SOX only requires a code of ethics for senior financial management. However, the ACFE suggests that companies create a code of conduct for all employees:
Should be written at a fifth-grade level. Should be reviewed annually with employees and signed. This approach helps employees keep themselves out of trouble. Helps the company if they need to take legal action against the employee.
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Management should require employees to report dishonest, illegal, or unethical behavior and discipline employees who knowingly fail to report.
Reports of dishonest acts should be thoroughly investigated. Those found guilty should be dismissed. Prosecution should be undertaken when possible, so that other employees are clear about consequences.
Companies must make a commitment to competence.

Begins with having competent employees. Varies with each job but is a function of knowledge, experience, training, and skills.
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The levers of control, particularly beliefs and boundaries systems, can be used to create the kind of commitment to integrity an organization wants.
Requires more than lip service and signing forms. Must be systems in which top management actively participates in order to:
Demonstrate the importance of the system. Create buy-in and a team spirit.
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Management should require employees to report dishonest, illegal, or unethical behavior and discipline employees who knowingly fail to report.
Reports of dishonest acts should be thoroughly investigated. Those found guilty should be dismissed. Prosecution should be undertaken when possible, so that other employees are clear about consequences.
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Companies must make a commitment to competence.
Begins with having competent employees. Varies with each job but is a function of knowledge, experience, training, and skills.
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The levers of control, particularly beliefs and boundary systems, can be used to create the kind of commitment to integrity an organization wants.
Requires more than lip service and signing forms. Must be systems in which top management actively participates in order to:
Demonstrate the importance of the system. Create buy-in and a team spirit.
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Organizational Structure
A company s organizational structure defines its lines of authority, responsibility, and reporting.
Provides the overall framework for planning, directing, executing, controlling, and monitoring its operations.
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Important aspects or organizational structure:
Degree of centralization or decentralization. Assignment of responsibility for specific tasks. Direct-reporting relationships or matrix structure Organization by industry, product, geographic location, marketing network How the responsibility allocation affects management s information needs Organization of accounting and IS functions Size and nature of company activities
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Statistically fraud occurs more frequently in organizations with complex structures
The structures may unintentionally impede communication and clear assignment of responsibility, making fraud easier to commit and conceal; or The structure may be intentionally complex to facilitate the fraud.
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In today s business world, the hierarchical organizations with many layers of management are giving way to flatter organizations with self-directed work teams.
Team members are empowered to make decisions without multiple layers of approvals. Emphasis is on continuous improvement rather than on regular evaluations. These changes have a significant impact on the nature and type of controls needed.
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Methods of Assigning Authority and Responsibility
Management should make sure:
Employees understand the entity s objectives Authority and responsibility for business objectives is assigned to specific departments and individuals
Ownership of responsibility encourages employees to take initiative in solving problems and holds them accountable for achieving objectives. Management:
Must be sure to identify who is responsible for the IS security policy. Should monitor results so decisions can be reviewed and, if necessary, overruled.
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Authority and responsibility are assigned through:
Formal job descriptions Employee training Operating plans, schedules, and budgets Codes of conduct that define ethical behavior, acceptable practices, regulatory requirements, and conflicts of interest Written policies and procedures manuals (a good job reference and job training tool) which covers: Proper business practices Knowledge and experience needed by key personnel Resources provided to carry out duties Policies and procedures for handling particular transactions The organization s chart of accounts Sample copies of forms and documents
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Human Resources Standards
Employees are both the company s greatest control strength and the greatest control weakness. Organizations can implement human resource policies and practices with respect to hiring, training, compensating, evaluating, counseling, promoting, and discharging employees that send messages about the level of competence and ethical behavior required. Policies on working conditions, incentives, and career advancement can powerfully encourage efficiency and loyalty and reduce the organization s vulnerability.
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The following policies and procedures are important:
Hiring Compensating Training Evaluating and promoting Discharging Managing disgruntled employees Vacations and rotation of duties Confidentiality insurance and fidelity bonds
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Hiring
Should be based on educational background, relevant work experience, past achievements, honesty and integrity, and how well candidates meet written job requirements. Employees should undergo a formal, in-depth employment interview. Resumes, reference letters, and thorough background checks are critical.
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Background checks can involve:
Verifying education and experience Talking with references Checking for criminal records, credit issues, and other publicly available data. Note that you must have the employee s or candidate s written permission to conduct a background check, but that permission does not need to have an expiration date. Background checks are important because recent studies show that about 50% of resumes have been falsified or embellished.
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Sometimes professional firms are hired to do the background checks because applicants are becoming more aggressive in their deceptions.
Some get phony degrees from online diploma mills.
A Pennsylvania district attorney recently filed suit against a Texas university for issuing an MBA to the DA s 6-year-old black cat.
Others actually hack (or hire someone to hack) into the systems of universities to create or alter transcripts and other academic data.
No employee should be exempted from background checks. Anyone from the custodian to the company president is capable of committing fraud, sabotage, etc
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Compensating
Employees should be paid a fair and competitive wage. Poorly compensated employees are more likely to feel the resentment and financial pressures that lead to fraud. Appropriate incentives can motivate and reinforce outstanding performance.
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Policies on Training
Training programs should familiarize new employees with:
Their responsibilities. Expected performance and behavior. Company policies, procedures, history, culture, and operating style.
Training needs to be ongoing, not just one-time. Companies who shortchange training are more likely to experience security breaches and fraud.
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Many believe employee training and education are the most important elements of fraud prevention and security programs. Fraud is less likely to occur when employees believe security is everyone s business. An ideal corporate culture exists when:
Employees are proud of their company and protective of its assets. They believe fraud hurts everyone and that they therefore have a responsibility to report it.
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These cultures do not just happen. They must be created, taught, and practiced, and the following training should be provided:
Fraud awareness
Employees should be aware of fraud s prevalence and dangers, why people do it, and how to deter and detect it.
Ethical considerations
The company should promote ethical standards in its practice and its literature. Acceptable and unacceptable behavior should be defined and labeled, leaving as little gray area as possible.
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Punishment for fraud and unethical behavior.
Employees should know the consequences (e.g., reprimand, dismissal, prosecution) of bad behavior. Should be disseminated as a consequence rather than a threat. EXAMPLE: Using a computer to steal or commit fraud is a federal crime, and anyone doing so faces immediate dismissal and/or prosecution. The company should display notices of program and data ownership and advise employees of the penalties of misuse.
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Training can take place through:
Informal discussions Formal meetings Periodic memos Written guidelines Codes of ethics Circulating reports of unethical behavior and its consequences Promoting security and fraud training programs
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Evaluating and promoting
Do periodic performance appraisals to help employees understand their strengths and weaknesses. Base promotions on performance and qualifications.
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Discharging
Fired employees are disgruntled employees. Disgruntled employees are more likely to commit a sabotage or fraud against the company. Employees who are terminated (whether voluntary or involuntary) should be removed from sensitive jobs immediately and denied access to information systems.
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Managing disgruntled employees
Disgruntled employees may be isolated and/or unhappy, but are much likelier fraud candidates than satisfied employees. The organization can try to reduce the employee s pressures through grievance channels and counseling.
Difficult to do because many employees feel that seeking counseling will stigmatize them in their jobs.
Disgruntled employees should not be allowed to continue in jobs where they could harm the organization.
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Vacations and rotation of duties
Some fraud schemes, such as lapping and kiting, cannot continue without the constant attention of the perpetrator. Mandatory vacations or rotation of duties can prevent these frauds or lead to early detection. These measures will only be effective if someone else is doing the job while the usual employee is elsewhere.
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Confidentiality agreements and fidelity bond insurance
Employees, suppliers, and contractors should be required to sign and abide by nondisclosure or confidentiality agreements. Key employees should have fidelity bond insurance coverage to protect the company against losses from fraudulent acts by those employees.
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In addition to the preceding policies, the company should seek prosecution and incarceration of hackers and fraud perpetrators Most fraud cases and hacker attacks go unreported. They are not prosecuted for several reasons.
Companies fear:
Public relations nightmares Copycat attacks
But unreported fraud and intrusions create a false sense of security.
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Law enforcement officials and courts are busy with violent crimes and may regard teen hacking as childish pranks. Fraud is difficult, costly, and time-consuming to investigate and prosecute. Law enforcement officials, lawyers, and judges often lack the computer skills needed to investigate, prosecute, and evaluate computer crimes. When cases are prosecuted and a conviction obtained, penalties are often very light. Judges often regard the perps as model citizens.
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External influences
External influences that affect the control environment include requirements imposed by:
FASB PCAOB SEC Insurance commissions Regulatory agencies for banks, utilities, etc.
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OBJECTIVE SETTING
Objective setting is the second ERM component. It must precede many of the other six components. For example, you must set objectives before you can define events that affect your ability to achieve objectives
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OBJECTIVE SETTING
Top management, with board approval, must articulate why the company exists and what it hopes to achieve.
Often referred to as the corporate vision or mission.
Uses the mission statement as a base from which to set corporate objectives. The objectives:
Need to be easy to understand and measure. Should be prioritized. Should be aligned with the company s risk appetite.
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OBJECTIVE SETTING
Objectives set at the corporate level are linked to and integrated with a cascading series of sub-objectives in the various sub-units. For each set of objectives:
Critical success factors (what has to go right) must be defined. Performance measures should be established to determine whether the objectives are met.
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OBJECTIVE SETTING
Objective-setting process proceeds as follows:
First, set strategic objectives, the high-level goals that support the company s mission and create value for shareholders. To meet these objectives, identify alternative ways of accomplishing them. For each alternative, identify and assess risks and implications. Formulate a corporate strategy. Then set operations, compliance, and reporting objectives.
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OBJECTIVE SETTING
As a rule of thumb:
The mission and strategic objectives are stable. The strategy and other objectives are more dynamic:
Must be adapted to changing conditions. Must be realigned with strategic objectives.
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OBJECTIVE SETTING
Operations objectives:
Are a product of management preferences, judgments, and style Vary significantly among entities:
One may adopt technology; another waits until the bugs are worked out.
Are influenced by and must be relevant to the industry, economic conditions, and competitive pressures. Give clear direction for resource allocation a key success factor.
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OBJECTIVE SETTING
Compliance and reporting objectives:
Many are imposed by external entities, e.g.:
Reports to IRS or to EPA Financial reports that comply with GAAP
A company s reputation can be impacted significantly (for better or worse) by the quality of its compliance.
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EVENT IDENTIFICATION
Events are:
Incidents or occurrences that emanate from internal or external sources That affect implementation of strategy or achievement of objectives. Impact can be positive, negative, or both. Events can range from obvious to obscure. Effects can range from inconsequential to highly significant.
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By their nature, events represent uncertainty:
Will they occur? If so, when? And what will the impact be? Will they trigger another event? Will they happen individually or concurrently?
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Management must do its best to anticipate all possible events positive or negative that might affect the company:
Try to determine which are most and least likely. Understand the interrelationships of events.
COSO identified many internal and external factors that could influence events and affect a company s ability to implement strategy and achieve objectives.
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EVENTAvailability of capital; lower or higher costs of IDENTIFICATION capital
Lower barriers to entry, resulting in new Some of these competition factors include: Price movements up or down External factors: to issue credit and possibility of default Ability Economic factors Concentration of competitors, customers, or vendors Presence or absence of liquidity Movements in the financial markets or currency fluctuations Rising or lowering unemployment rates Mergers or acquisitions Potential regulatory, contractual, or criminal legal liability
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Some of these factors include:
External factors:
Economic factors Natural environment
Natural disasters such as fires, floods, or earthquakes Emissions and waste Energy restrictions or shortages Restrictions limiting development
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External factors:
Economic factors Natural environment Election of government Political factors
officials with new agendas New laws and regulations Public policy, including higher or lower taxes Regulation affecting the companys ability to compete
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Some of these factors
External factors:
Economic factors Natural environment Political factors Social factors
Changing demographics, social mores, family structures, and work/life include: priorities Consumer behavior that changes demand for products and services or creates new buying opportunities Corporate citizenship Privacy Terrorism Human resource issues causing production shortages or stoppages
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New e-business technologies that lower Some of these factors include:infrastructure costs or increase demand for IT External factors: based services Emerging technology Economic factors Natural environment Increased or decreased availability of data Political factors Interruptions or down time Social factors caused by external parties
Technological factors
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Internal factors:
Infrastructure
Inadequate access or poor allocation of capital Availability and capability of company assets Complexity of systems
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Internal factors:
Infrastructure Personnel
Employee skills and capability Employees acting dishonestly or unethically Workplace accidents, health or safety concerns Strikes or expiration of labor agreements
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Internal factors:
Infrastructure Personnel Process
Process modification without proper change management procedures Poorly designed processes Process execution errors Suppliers cannot deliver quality goods on time
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Internal factors:
Infrastructure Personnel Process Technology
Insufficient capacity to handle peak IT usages Security breaches Data or system unavailability from internal factors Inadequate data integrity Poor systems selection/development 2/10/2012 Inadequately maintained systems
Lists can help management identify factors, evaluate their importance, and examine those that can affect objectives. Identifying events at the activity and entity levels allows companies to focus their risk assessment on major business units or functions and align their risk tolerance and risk appetite.
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Companies usually use two or more of the following techniques together to identify events:
Use comprehensive lists of potential events
Often produced by special software that can tailor lists to an industry, activity, or process.
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Use comprehensive lists of potential events Perform an internal analysis
An internal committee analyzes events, contacting appropriate insiders and outsiders for input.
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Use comprehensive lists of potential events Perform an internal analysis Monitor leading events and trigger points
Appropriate transactions, activities, and events are monitored and compared to predefined criteria to determine when action is needed.
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Use comprehensive lists of potential events Perform an internal analysis Monitor leading events and trigger points Conduct workshops and interviews
Employee knowledge and expertise is gathered in structured discussions or individual interviews.
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Use comprehensive lists of potential events Perform an internal analysis Monitor leading events and trigger points Examine data on prior events to identify trends Conductand causes that help identify possible events. workshops and interviews Perform data mining and analysis
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Use comprehensive lists of potential events Perform an internal analysis Monitor leading events and trigger points Analyze internal and interviews Conduct workshops and external factors that affect inputs, processes, and outputs to identify events Perform data mining and analysis that might help or hinder the process. Analyze processes
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RISK ASSESSMENT AND RISK RESPONSE The fourth and fifth components of COSO s ERM model are risk assessment and risk response. COSO indicates there The risk that exists before are two types of steps management takes any risk: to
control the likelihood or impact Inherent risk of a risk.
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RISK ASSESSMENT AND RISK RESPONSE The fourth and fifth components of COSO s ERM model are risk assessment and risk response. COSO indicates there are two types of risk:
The risk that remains after Inherent risk management implements internal controls Residual riskor some other form of response to risk.
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RISK ASSESSMENT AND RISK RESPONSE

Companies should:
Assess inherent risk Develop a response Then assess residual risk
The ERM model indicates four ways to respond to risk:

Reduce it
The most effective way to reduce the likelihood and impact of risk is to implement an effective system of internal controls.
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Companies should:

Reduce it Accept it
Dont act to prevent or mitigate it.
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Companies should:

Reduce it Accept it Share it
Transfer some of it to others via activities such as insurance, outsourcing, or hedging.
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Companies should:

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Reduce it Accept it Share it Avoid it
Dont engage in the activity that produces it. May require: Sale of a division Exiting a product line Canceling an expansion plan
RISK ASSESSMENT AND RISK RESPONSE Accountants:

Help management design effective controls to reduce inherent risk Evaluate internal control systems to ensure they are operating effectively Assess and reduce inherent risk using the risk assessment and response strategy
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Identify the events or threats that confront the company Estimate the likelihood or probability of each event occurring Estimate the impact of potential loss from each threat Identify set of controls to guard against threat Estimate costs and benefits from instituting controls
Is it costbeneficial to protect system
Event Identification
The first step in risk assessment and response strategy is event identification, which we have already discussed.
No
Avoid, share, or accept risk
Yes
Reduce risk by implementing set of controls to guard against threat

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RISK ASSESSMENT AND RISK RESPONSE Estimate Likelihood and Impact

Some events pose more risk because they are more probable than others. Some events pose more risk because their dollar impact would be more significant. Likelihood and impact must be considered together: If either increases, the materiality of the event and the need to protect against it rises.
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No
Yes
Identify Controls
Management must identify one or more controls that will protect the company from each event. In evaluating benefits of each control procedure, consider effectiveness and timing.
No
Yes

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All other factors equal: A preventive control is better than a detective one. However, if preventive controls fail, detective controls are needed to discover the problem, and corrective controls are needed to recover. Consequently, the three complement each other, and a good internal control system should have all three. Similarly, a company should use all four levers of control.
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No
Yes
RISK ASSESSMENT AND RISK RESPONSE Estimate Costs and Benefits

It would be costprohibitive to create an internal control system that provided foolproof protection against all events. Also, some controls negatively affect operational efficiency, and too many controls can make it very inefficient.
No
Yes

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The benefits of an internal control procedure must exceed its costs. Benefits can be hard to quantify, but include: Increased sales and productivity Reduced losses Better integration with customers and suppliers Increased customer loyalty Competitive advantages Lower insurance premiums
No
Yes

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RISK ASSESSMENT AND RISK RESPONSE Costs are usually easier to measure than benefits. Primary cost is personnel, including:
Time to perform control procedures Costs of hiring additional employees to effectively segregate duties Costs of programming controls into a system
No
Yes

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RISK ASSESSMENT AND RISK RESPONSE Other costs of a poor control system include:
Lost sales Lower productivity Drop in stock price if security problems arise Shareholder or regulator lawsuits Fines and penalties imposed by governmental agencies
No
Yes

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The expected loss related to a risk is measured as:

Expected loss = impact x likelihood
The value of a control procedure is the difference between:

Expected loss with control procedure Expected loss without it
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No
Yes
RISK ASSESSMENT AND RISK RESPONSE Determine Cost-Benefit Effectiveness

After estimating benefits and costs, management determines if the control is cost beneficial, i.e., is the cost of implementing a control procedure less than the change in expected loss that would be attributable to the change?
Is it costbeneficia l
to protect system
No
Yes

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In evaluating costs and benefits, management must consider factors other than those in the expected benefit calculation. If an event threatens an organization s existence, it may be worthwhile to institute controls even if costs exceed expected benefits. The additional cost can be viewed as a catastrophic loss insurance premium.
to protect system
No
Yes

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Expected Loss without control procedure = $800,000 x .12 = $96,000. Expected loss with control procedure = $800,000 x .005 = $4,000. RISK ASSESSMENT AND RISK - $4,000 = $92,000. Estimated value of control procedure = $96,000RESPONSE Estimated cost of control procedure = $43,000 (given). Benefits exceed costs by $92,000 - $43,000 = $49,000. Let s go through an example: In this case, Hobby Hole should probably install the motion detectors.
Hobby Hole is trying to decide whether to install a motion detector system in its warehouse to reduce the probability of a catastrophic theft. A catastrophic theft could result in losses of $800,000. Local crime statistics suggest that the probability of a catastrophic theft at Hobby Hole is 12%. Companies with motion detectors only have about a .5% probability of catastrophic theft. The present value of purchasing and installing a motion detector system and paying future security costs is estimated to be about $43,000. Should Hobby Hole install the motion detectors?
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RISK ASSESSMENT AND RISK RESPONSE Implement the Control or Avoid, Share, or Accept the Risk
When controls are cost effective, they should be implemented so risk can be reduced.
to protect system
No
Yes

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Risks that are not reduced must be accepted, shared, or avoided. If the risk is within the company s risk tolerance, they will typically accept the risk. A reduce or share response is used to bring residual risk into an acceptable risk tolerance range. An avoid response is typically only used when there is no way to costeffectively bring risk into an acceptable risk tolerance range.
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to protect system
No
Yes
CONTROL ACTIVITIES
The sixth component of COSO s ERM model. Control activities are policies, procedures, and rules that provide reasonable assurance that management s control objectives are met and their risk responses are carried out.
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CONTROL ACTIVITIES
It is management s responsibility to develop a secure and adequately controlled system.
Controls are much more effective when built in on the front end. Consequently, systems analysts, designers, and end users should be involved in designing adequate computer-based control systems.
Management must also establish a set of procedures to ensure control compliance and enforcement.
Usually the purview of the information security officer and the operations staff.
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CONTROL ACTIVITIES
It is critical that controls be in place during the year-end holiday season. A disproportionate amount of computer fraud and security breakins occur during this time because:
More people are on vacation and fewer around to mind the store. Students are not tied up with school. Counterculture hackers may be lonely.
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CONTROL ACTIVITIES
Generally, control procedures fall into one of the following categories:
Proper authorization of transactions and activities Segregation of duties Project development and acquisition controls Change management controls Design and use of documents and records Safeguard assets, records, and data Independent checks on performance
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CONTROL ACTIVITIES
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CONTROL ACTIVITIES
Proper Authorization of Transactions and Activities
Management lacks the time and resources to supervise each employee activity and decision. Consequently, they establish policies and empower employees to perform activities within policy. This empowerment is called authorization and is an important part of an organization s control procedures.
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CONTROL ACTIVITIES
Authorizations are often documented by signing initializing, or entering an authorization code. Computer systems can record digital signatures as a means of signing a document. Employees who process transactions should verify the presence of the appropriate authorizations. Auditors review transactions for proper authorization, as their absence indicates a possible control problem.
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CONTROL ACTIVITIES
Typically at least two levels of authorization:
General authorization
Management authorizes employees to handle routine transactions without special approval.
Special authorization
For activities or transactions that are of significant consequences, management review and approval is required. Might apply to sales, capital expenditures, or write-offs over a particular dollar limit.
Management should have written policies for both types of authorization and for all types of transactions.
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CONTROL ACTIVITIES
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CONTROL ACTIVITIES
Segregation of Duties
Good internal control requires that no single employee be given too much responsibility over business transactions or processes. An employee should not be in a position to commit and conceal fraud or unintentional errors. Segregation of duties is discussed in two sections:
Segregation of accounting duties Segregation of duties within the systems function
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CONTROL ACTIVITIES
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CONTROL ACTIVITIES
To learn a little about segregation of duties, let s first meet Bill.

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CONTROL ACTIVITIES
Bill has charge of a pile of the organization s money let s say $1,000.
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CONTROL ACTIVITIES
Ledger $1,000
Bill also keeps the books for that money.

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CONTROL ACTIVITIES
Ledger $1,000
Bill has a date tonight, and he s a little desperate to impress that special someone, so he takes $100 of the cash. (Thinks he s only borrowing it, you know.)
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CONTROL ACTIVITIES
Ledger $1,000
Bill has a date tonight, and he s a little desperate to impress that special someone, so he takes $100 of the cash. (Thinks he s only borrowing it, you know.)
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CONTROL ACTIVITIES
Ledger $1,000
Bill also records an entry in the books to show that $100 was spent for some legitimate purpose. Now the balance in the books is $900.
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CONTROL ACTIVITIES
Ledger $900
How will Bill ever get caught at his theft?

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CONTROL ACTIVITIES
Now let s change the story. Bill has charge of the pile of cash.
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CONTROL ACTIVITIES
Ledger $1,000
But Mary keeps the books. This arrangement is a form of segregation of duties.
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CONTROL ACTIVITIES
Ledger $1,000
Bill gets in a pinch again and takes $100 of the organization s cash.
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CONTROL ACTIVITIES
Ledger $1,000
How will Bill get caught?

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CONTROL ACTIVITIES
Segregation of Accounting Duties
Effective segregation of accounting duties is achieved when the following functions are separated:
Authorization approving transactions and decisions. Recording Preparing source documents; maintaining journals, ledgers, or other files; preparing reconciliations; and preparing performance reports. Custody Handling cash, maintaining an inventory storeroom, receiving incoming customer checks, writing checks on the organization s bank account.
If any two of the preceding functions are the responsibility of one person, then problems can arise.
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CONTROL ACTIVITIES
CUSTODIAL FUNCTIONS Handling cash Handling inventories, tools, or fixed assets Writing checks Receiving checks in mail RECORDING FUNCTIONS Preparing source documents Maintaining journals, ledgers, or other files Preparing reconciliations Preparing performance reports
EXAMPLE OF PROBLEM: A person who has custody of cash receipts and the AUTHORIZATION recording for those receipts can steal some of the cash and falsify accounts to FUNCTIONS conceal the theft. Authorization of SOLUTION: The pink fence (segregation of custody and recording) prevents transactions employees from falsifying records to conceal theft of assets entrusted to them.
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CONTROL ACTIVITIES
CUSTODIAL FUNCTIONS Handling cash Handling inventories, tools, or fixed assets Writing checks Receiving checks in mail
EXAMPLE OF PROBLEM: A person who has custody of checks for transactions that he has authorized can authorize fictitious transactions and then steal RECORDING FUNCTIONS the payments. Preparing source SOLUTION: The green documents fence (segregation of Maintaining authorization) custody and journals, ledgers, employees from prevents or other files authorizingreconciliations Preparing fictitious or inaccurate performance as a Preparing transactions means of concealing a theft. reports
AUTHORIZATION FUNCTIONS Authorization of transactions

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EXAMPLE OF PROBLEM: A person who can authorize a transaction and keep records related to the transactions can authorize and record fictitious CUSTODIAL FUNCTIONS payments that might, for example, be sent to the Handling cash employees home address Handling inventories, tools, or thefixed assetsa shell or address of company he creates. Writing checks SOLUTION: The purple mail Receiving checks in fence (segregation of recording and authorization) prevents employees from falsifying records to cover up inaccurate or false transactions that were inappropriately authorized. AUTHORIZATION FUNCTIONS Authorization of transactions
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CONTROL ACTIVITIES
RECORDING FUNCTIONS Preparing source documents Maintaining journals, ledgers, or other files Preparing reconciliations Preparing performance reports
CONTROL ACTIVITIES
In a system that incorporates an effective separation of duties, it should be difficult for any single employee to commit embezzlement successfully. But when two or more people collude, then segregation of duties becomes impotent and controls are overridden.
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CONTROL ACTIVITIES
Ledger $1,000
If this happens . . .
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CONTROL ACTIVITIES
Ledger $1,000
Then segregation of duties is out the window. Collusion overrides segregation.

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CONTROL ACTIVITIES
Employees can collude with other employees or with customers or vendors. The most frequent form of employee/vendor collusions include:
Billing at inflated prices Performing substandard work and receiving full payment Payment for non-performance Duplicate billings Improperly funneling more work to or purchasing more goods from a colluding company
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CONTROL ACTIVITIES
The most frequent form of employee/customer collusions include:
Unauthorized loans or insurance payments Receipt of assets or services at unauthorized discount prices Forgiveness of amounts owed Unauthorized extension of due dates
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CONTROL ACTIVITIES
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CONTROL ACTIVITIES
Segregation of Duties Within the Systems Function
In a highly integrated information system, procedures once performed by separate individuals are combined. Therefore, anyone who has unrestricted access to the computer, its programs, and live data could have the opportunity to perpetrate and conceal fraud. To combat this threat, organizations must implement effective segregation of duties within the IS function.
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CONTROL ACTIVITIES
Authority and responsibility must be divided clearly among the following functions:
Systems administration Responsible for ensuring that the different parts of an information system operate smoothly and efficiently.
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CONTROL ACTIVITIES
Systems administration Network management Ensures that all applicable devices are linked to the organizations internal and external networks and that the networks operate continuously and properly.
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CONTROL ACTIVITIES
Systems administration Network management Security management Ensures that all aspects of the system are secure and protected from internal and external threats.
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CONTROL ACTIVITIES
Systems administration Network management Security management Change management
Manages changes to the organizations information system to ensure they are made smoothly and efficiently and to prevent errors and fraud.
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CONTROL ACTIVITIES
Systems administration Network management Security management Change management Users Record transactions, authorize data to be processed, and use system output.
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CONTROL ACTIVITIES
Systems administration Network management Security management Change management Users Help users determine their Systems analysts information needs and design systems to meet those needs.
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CONTROL ACTIVITIES
Systems administration Network management Security management Change management Users Systems analysts Programming Use design provided by the systems analysts to write the computer programs for the information system.
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CONTROL ACTIVITIES
Systems administration Network management Security management Change management Users Systems analysts Programming Computer operations
Run the software on the companys computers. Ensure that data are input properly, correctly processed, and needed output is produced.
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CONTROL ACTIVITIES
Systems administration Network management Security management Change management Users Systems analysts Maintains custody of corporate databases, files, and programs in Programming a separate storage area. Computer operations Information systems library
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CONTROL ACTIVITIES

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Systems administration Network management Ensures that source data have Security management Change managementbeen properly approved. Monitors the flow of work Users through the computer. Systems analysts Reconciles input and output. Programming Maintains a record of input Computer operations errors to ensure their correction Information systems library and resubmission. Data control Distributes system output.
CONTROL ACTIVITIES
It is important that different people perform the preceding functions.
Allowing a person to do two or more jobs exposes the company to the possibility of fraud.
In addition to adequate segregation of duties, organizations should ensure that the people who design, develop, implement, and operate the IS are qualified and well trained. The same holds true for systems security personnel.
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CONTROL ACTIVITIES
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CONTROL ACTIVITIES
Project Development and Acquisition Controls
It s important to have a formal, appropriate, and proven methodology to govern the development, acquisition, implementation, and maintenance of information systems and related technologies. Should contain appropriate controls for: Management review and approval User involvement Analysis Design Testing Implementation Conversion Should make it possible for management to trace information inputs from source to disposition and vice versa (the audit trail).
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CONTROL ACTIVITIES
Examples abound of poorly managed projects that have wasted large sums of money because certain basic principles of project management control were ignored.
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A multi-year strategic plan should align the organizations information system with its business strategies and show the The following basic principles of projectsshould be applied to control that must be systems development in order to reduce the potentiallongcompleted to achieve for cost overruns and project failure and range goals.the efficiency and to improve effectiveness of the IS: Should address hardware, software, personnel, and Strategic master plan infrastructure requirements. Each year, the board and top management should prepare and approve the plan and its supporting budget. Should be evaluated several times a year to ensure the organization can acquire needed components and maintain existing ones. 2/10/2012
CONTROL ACTIVITIES
A project development plan shows how a project will be completed, including: Modules or tasks to be performed The following basic principles of control should be applied to Who the potential for systems development in order to reduce will perform them cost Anticipated efficiency dates overruns and project failure and to improve thecompletionand Project costs effectiveness of the IS: Project milestones should be Strategic master plan specifiedpoints when progress Project controls is reviewed and actual completion times are compared to estimates Each project should be assigned to a manager and team who are responsible for its success or failure. At project completion, a project evaluation of the team members should be performed.
CONTROL ACTIVITIES
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CONTROL ACTIVITIES
The following basic principles of control should be applied to systems development in order to reduce the potential for cost overruns and project failure and to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of the IS:
Strategic master plan Project controls Data processing schedule Data processing tasks should be organized according to a schedule to maximize the use of scarce computer resources.
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CONTROL ACTIVITIES
Strategic master plan Project controls Data processing schedule Steering committee A steering committee should guide and oversee systems development and acquisition.
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CONTROL ACTIVITIES
The following basic principles of To be evaluatedbe applied to control should properly, a system should be assessed systems development in order to reduce the potential for cost with measures such as: overruns and project failure and to improve the efficiency and Throughput (output per effectiveness of the IS: unit of time)
Strategic master plan Project controls Data processing schedule Steering committee System performance measurements Utilization (percent of time it is used productively) Response time (how long it takes to respond)
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CONTROL ACTIVITIES
Strategic master plan Project controls Data processing schedule Steering committee System performance measurements Post-implementation review A review should be performed after a development project is completed to determine if the anticipated benefits were achieved. Helps control project development activities and encourage accurate and objective initial cost and benefit estimates.
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CONTROL ACTIVITIES
To simplify and improve systems development, some companies hire a systems integrator a vendor who uses common standards and manages the development effort using their own personnel and those of the client and other vendors.
Many companies rely on the integrator s assurance that the project will be completed on time. Unfortunately, the integrator is often wrong. These third-party systems development projects are subject to the same cost overruns and missed deadlines as systems developed internally.
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CONTROL ACTIVITIES
Before third parties bid, provide clear When using systems including: specifications, integrators, companies Exact the same basic rules used for should adhere todescriptions and definitions of the system Explicit deadlines project management of internal projects. In Precise acceptance criteria addition, they its expensive to develop these While should: Developspecifications, it will save money in the end. clear specifications
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A sponsors committee should monitor third-party development projects. Established by the CIO and chaired by the projects internal champion. Should include department managers from all units that will use the system. When using systems integrators, companies Should establish formal procedures for should adhere to the samereportingrules used for measuring and basic project status. Best approach is to: project management of internal projects. In Divide addition, they should: project into manageable tasks. Assign responsibility for each task. Develop clear specifications Meet on a regular basis (at least monthly) to review progress and assess quality.
CONTROL ACTIVITIES
Monitor the systems integration project
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CONTROL ACTIVITIES
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CONTROL ACTIVITIES
Change Management Controls
Organizations constantly modify their information systems to reflect new business practices and take advantage of information technology advances. Change management is the process of making sure that the changes do not negatively affect:

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Systems reliability Security Confidentiality Integrity Availability
CONTROL ACTIVITIES
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CONTROL ACTIVITIES
Design and Use of Adequate Documents and Records
Proper design and use of documents and records helps ensure accurate and complete recording of all relevant transaction data. Form and content should be kept as simple as possible to:
Promote efficient record keeping Minimize recording errors Facilitate review and verification
Documents that initiate a transaction should contain a space for authorization. Those used to transfer assets should have a space for the receiving party s signature.
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CONTROL ACTIVITIES
Documents should be sequentially pre-numbered:
To reduce likelihood that they would be used fraudulently. To help ensure that all valid transactions are recorded.
A good audit trail facilitates:

Tracing individual transactions through the system. Correcting errors. Verifying system output.
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CONTROL ACTIVITIES
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CONTROL ACTIVITIES
Safeguard Assets, Records, and Data
When people consider safeguarding assets, they most often think of cash and physical assets, such as inventory and equipment. Another company asset that needs to be protected is information. According to the ACFE s 2004 National Fraud Survey, theft of information made up only 17.3% of non-cash misappropriations; however, the median cost of an information theft was $340,000. This cost was 126% higher than the next most costly non-asset theft. (Equipment theft had a median cost of $150,000.)
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CONTROL ACTIVITIES
Many people mistakenly believe that the greatest risks companies face are from outsiders. However, employees pose a much greater risk when it comes to loss of data because:
They know the system and its weaknesses better. They are better able to hide their illegal acts.
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CONTROL ACTIVITIES
Insiders also create less-intentional threats to systems, including:
Accidentally deleting company data Turning viruses loose Trying to fix hardware or software without appropriate expertise (i.e., when in doubt, unplug it).
These actions can result in crashed networks, corrupt data, and hardware and software malfunctions. Companies also face significant risks from customers and vendors that have access to company data.
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CONTROL ACTIVITIES
Many steps can be taken to safeguard both information and physical assets from theft, unauthorized use, and vandalism. Chapters 7 and 8 discuss computer-based controls. In addition, it is important to:
Maintain accurate records of all assets
Periodically reconcile recorded amounts to physical counts.
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CONTROL ACTIVITIES
Many steps can be taken to safeguard both information and physical assets from theft, unauthorized use, and vandalism. Chapters 7 Use restricted storage areas and 8 discuss computer-based controls. In for inventories and equipment. addition, it is important to: cash registers, safes, Use
Maintain accurate recordslockboxes, and safe deposit of all assets
counts. Restrict access to assets
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boxes to limit access to cash, Periodically reconcile recorded amounts to physical securities, and paper assets.
CONTROL ACTIVITIES
Many steps can be taken to safeguard both information and physical assets from theft, unauthorized use, and vandalism. Chapters 7 and 8 discuss computer-based controls. In Use fireproof storage areas, addition, it is important to: locked filing cabinets, backup
Maintain accurate records of files assets copies at of all (including off-site locations).
Periodically reconcile recorded amounts to blank checks Limit access to physical counts. and documents to authorized Restrict access to assets personnel. Protect records and documents
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CONTROL ACTIVITIES
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CONTROL ACTIVITIES
Ledger $1,000
Let s look at Bill and Mary again. Assume that Bill stole cash but Mary did NOT alter the books.
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CONTROL ACTIVITIES
Ledger $1,000
Can Bill s theft be discovered if an independent party doesn t compare a count of the cash to what s recorded on the books?
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CONTROL ACTIVITIES
Ledger $1,000
Segregation of duties only has value when supplemented by independent checks.

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CONTROL ACTIVITIES
Internal checks to ensure that transactions are processed accurately are an important control element. These checks should be performed by someone independent of the party(ies) responsible for the activities.
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CONTROL ACTIVITIES
The following independent checks are typically used:
Top-level reviews
Management at all levels should monitor company results and periodically compare actual performance to: Planned performance as shown in budgets, targets, and forecasts Prior-period performance The performance of competitors
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CONTROL ACTIVITIES
Top-level reviews Analytical reviews
Examinations of relationships between different sets of data. EXAMPLE: If credit sales increased significantly during the period and there were no changes in credit policy, then bad debt expense should probably have increased also. Management should periodically analyze and review data relationships to detect fraud and other business problems.
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CONTROL ACTIVITIES
Check the accuracy and completeness of records by reconciling them with other records that should have the The following independent checks are same balance. typically used: EXAMPLES: Bank reconciliations Top-level reviews Comparing accounts payable control account to sum Analytical subsidiary accounts. of reviews
Reconciliation of independently maintained sets of records
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CONTROL ACTIVITIES
The following independent checks are typically used: Periodically count significant assets

and reconcile the count to company Top-level reviewsrecords. EXAMPLE: Annual physical inventory. Analytical reviews High-dollar items and critical Reconciliation of independently maintained sets components should be counted more frequently. of records
Comparison of actual quantities with recorded amounts
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CONTROL ACTIVITIES
Top-level reviews Analytical reviews Reconciliation of independently maintained sets of records Comparison of actual quantitiesthat debits equal with recorded Ensure amounts credits. Double-entry accounting
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CONTROL ACTIVITIES
Top-level reviews Analytical reviews Reconciliation of independently maintained sets of records Comparison of actual quantities with recorded After one person processes a amounts transaction, another reviews Double-entry accounting work. their Independent review
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INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION

The seventh component of COSO s ERM model. The primary purpose of the AIS is to gather, record, process, store, summarize, and communicate information about an organization. So accountants must understand how: Transactions are initiated Data are captured in or converted to machine-readable form Computer files are accessed and updated Data are processed Information is reported to internal and external parties
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INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION Accountants must also understand the accounting records and procedures, supporting documents, and specific financial statement accounts involved in processing and reporting transactions. The preceding items facilitate an audit trail which allows for transactions to be traced from origin to financial statements and vice versa.
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INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION According to the AICPA, an AIS has five primary objectives:
Identify and record all valid transactions. Properly classify transactions. Record transactions at their proper monetary value. Record transactions in the proper accounting period. Properly present transactions and related disclosures in the financial statements.
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INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION

Accounting systems generally consist of several accounting subsystems, each designed to process transactions of a particular type. Though they differ with respect to the type of transactions processed, all accounting subsystems follow the same sequence of procedures, referred to as accounting cycles. The five major accounting cycles and their related control objectives and procedures are detailed in Chapters 10-14.
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MONITORING
The eighth component of COSO s ERM model. Monitoring can be accomplished with a series of ongoing events or by separate evaluations.
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MONITORING
Key methods of monitoring performance include:
Perform ERM evaluation Implement effective supervision Use responsibility accounting Monitor system activities Track purchased software Conduct periodic audits Employ a computer security officer and security consultants Engage forensic specialists Install fraud detection software Implement a fraud hotline
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MONITORING
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MONITORING
Perform ERM Evaluation
Can measure ERM effectiveness through a formal evaluation or through a self-assessment process. A special group can be assembled to conduct the evaluation or it can be done by internal auditing.
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MONITORING
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MONITORING
Implement Effective Supervision
Involves:
Training and assisting employees; Monitoring their performance; Correcting errors; and Safeguarding assets by overseeing employees with access.
Especially important in organizations that:

Can t afford elaborate responsibility reporting; or Are too small for segregation of duties.
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MONITORING
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MONITORING
Use Responsibility Accounting
Includes use of:
Budgets, quotas, schedules, standard costs, and quality standards; Performance reports that compare actual with planned performance and highlight variances; Procedures for investigating significant variances and taking timely actions to correct adverse conditions.
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MONITORING
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MONITORING
Monitor System Activities
Risk analysis and management software packages are available to:
Review computer and network security measures; Detect illegal entry into systems; Test for weaknesses and vulnerabilities; Report weaknesses found; and Suggest improvements.
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MONITORING
Cost parameters can be entered to balance acceptable levels of risk tolerance and costeffectiveness. Software is also available to monitor and combat viruses, spyware, spam, pop-up ads, and to prevent browsers from being hijacked. Also helps companies recover from frauds and malicious actions and restore systems to preincident status.
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MONITORING
System transactions and activities should be recorded in a log which indicates who accessed what data, when, and from which terminal. Logs should be reviewed frequently to monitor system activity and trace any problems to their source. Data collected can be used to:

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Evaluate employee productivity; Control company costs; Fight corporate espionage and other attacks; and Comply with legal requirements.
MONITORING
Companies that monitor system activities need to ensure they do not violate employee privacy rights. Employers cannot discreetly observe communications of employees when those employees have a reasonable expectation of privacy. Employers must therefore ensure that employees realize their business communications are not private. One way to accomplish that objective is to have written policies that employees agree to in writing which indicate:
The technology employees use on the job belongs to the company. Emails received on company computers are not private and can be read by supervisory personnel. Employees should not use technology in any way to contribute to a hostile work environment.
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MONITORING
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MONITORING
Track Purchased Software
The Business Software Alliance (BSA) aggressively tracks down and fines companies who violate software license agreements. To comply with copyrights, companies should periodically conduct software audits to ensure that.
There are enough licenses for all users; The company is not paying for more licenses than needed.
Employees should be informed of the consequences of using unlicensed software.
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MONITORING
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MONITORING
Conduct Periodic Audits
To monitor risk and detect fraud and errors, the company should have periodic:
External audits Internal audits Special network security audits
Auditors should test system controls and browse system usage files looking for suspicious activities (discussed in Chapter 9).
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MONITORING
Again, care should be exercised that employees privacy rights are not violated. Therefore, inform employees that auditors will conduct random surveillance, which:
Avoids privacy violations Creates a perception of detection that can deter crime and reduce errors
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MONITORING
Internal auditing involves:
Reviewing the reliability and integrity of financial and operating information. Providing an appraisal of internal control effectiveness. Assessing employee compliance with management policies and procedures and applicable laws and regulations. Evaluating the efficiency and effectiveness of management.
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MONITORING
Internal audits can detect:
Excess overtime Under-used assets Obsolete inventory Padded expense reimbursements Excessively loose budgets and quotas Poorly justified capital expenditures Production bottlenecks
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MONITORING
Internal auditing should be organizationally independent of the accounting and operating functions. The head should report to the audit committee of the board of directors rather than to the controller or CFO.
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MONITORING
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MONITORING
Employ a Computer Security Officer and Computer Consultants
The computer security officer (CSO) is in charge of AIS security
Should be independent of the IS function Should report to the COO or CEO
Many companies also use outside computer consultants or in-house teams to test and evaluate their security procedures and computer systems.
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MONITORING
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MONITORING
Engage Forensic Specialists
Forensic accountants specialize in fraud detection and investigation.
Now one of the fastest growing areas of accounting due to:
SOX SAS-99 Boards of Directors demanding that forensic accounting be an ongoing part of the financial reporting and corporate governance process.
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MONITORING
Most forensic accountants are CPAs and may have received special training with the FBI, CIA, or other law enforcement agencies.
In particular demand are those with the necessary computer skills to ferret out and combat fraudsters who use sophisticated technology to perpetrate their crimes. The Association of Certified Fraud Examiners (ACFE) has created a professional certification program for fraud examiners.
Most forensic accountants are CPAs and may have received special training with the FBI, CIA, or other law enforcement agencies.
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MONITORING
Management may also need to call on computer forensic specialists for help. They assist in discovering, extracting, safeguarding, and documenting computer evidence so that its authenticity, accuracy, and integrity will not succumb to legal challenges.
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MONITORING
Common incidents investigated by computer forensic experts include:
Improper internet usage Fraud Sabotage Loss, theft, or corruption of data Retrieving information from emails and databases that users thought they had erased Determining who performed certain actions on a computer
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MONITORING
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MONITORING
Install Fraud Detection Software
People who commit fraud tend to follow certain patterns and leave behind clues. Software has been developed to seek out these fraud symptoms. Some companies employ neural networks (programs that mimic the brain and have learning capabilities) which are very accurate in identifying suspected fraud. For example, if a husband and wife were each using the same credit card in two different stores at the same time, a neural network would probably flag at least one of the transactions immediately as suspicious. These networks and other recent advances in fraud detection software are significantly reducing the incidences of credit card fraud.
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MONITORING
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MONITORING
Implement a Fraud Hotline
People who witness fraudulent behavior are often torn between conflicting feelings.
They want to protect company assets and report fraud perpetrators. But they are uncomfortable in the whistleblower role and find it easier to remain silent.
They are particularly reluctant to report if they know of others who have suffered repercussions from doing so.
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MONITORING
SOX mandates that companies set up mechanisms for employees to anonymously report abuses such as fraud.
An effective way to comply with the law and resolve employee concerns is to provide access to an anonymous hotline. Anonymous reporting can be accomplished through:

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Phone lines Web-based reporting Anonymous emails Snail mail
MONITORING
Outsourcing is available through a number of third parties and offers several benefits, including:
Increased confidence on the part of employee that his/her report is truly anonymous. 24/7 availability. Often have multilingual capabilities an important plus for multinational organizations. The outsourcer may be able to do follow up with the employee if additional information is needed after the initial contact. The employee can be advised of the outcome of his report. Low cost.
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MONITORING
A downside to anonymous reporting mechanisms is that they will produce a significant amount of petty or slanderous reports that do not require investigation. The ACFE s 2004 Report to the Nation indicates that companies without fraud hotlines had median fraud losses that were 140% higher than companies that had fraud hotlines.
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SUMMARY
In this chapter, you ve learned about basic internal control concepts and why computer control and security are so important. You ve learned about the similarities and differences between the COBIT, COSO, and ERM control frameworks. You ve learned about the major elements in the internal control environment of a company and the four types of control objectives that companies need to set. You ve also learned about events that affect uncertainty and how these events can be identified. You ve explored how the Enterprise Risk Management model is used to assess and respond to risk, as well as the control activities that are commonly used in companies. Finally, you ve learned how organizations communicate information and monitor control processes.
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Control and Accounting Information Systems

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CHAPTER 6

Control and Accounting Information Systems

Management expects accountants to be control consultants by:

OVERVIEW OF CONTROL CONCEPTS

OVERVIEW OF CONTROL CONCEPTS

OVERVIEW OF CONTROL CONCEPTS

OVERVIEW OF CONTROL CONCEPTS

OVERVIEW OF CONTROL CONCEPTS

OVERVIEW OF CONTROL CONCEPTS

OVERVIEW OF CONTROL CONCEPTS

OVERVIEW OF CONTROL CONCEPTS

OVERVIEW OF CONTROL CONCEPTS

OVERVIEW OF CONTROL CONCEPTS

Internal control objectives are often at odds with each other.

OVERVIEW OF CONTROL CONCEPTS Internal controls perform three important functions:

OVERVIEW OF CONTROL CONCEPTS Internal controls perform three important functions:

OVERVIEW OF CONTROL CONCEPTS Internal controls perform three important functions:

OVERVIEW OF CONTROL CONCEPTS Internal controls are often classified as:

OVERVIEW OF CONTROL CONCEPTS Internal controls are often classified as:

SOX AND THE FOREIGN CORRUPT PRACTICES ACT

SOX AND THE FOREIGN CORRUPT PRACTICES ACT

SOX AND THE FOREIGN CORRUPT PRACTICES ACT

SOX AND THE FOREIGN CORRUPT PRACTICES ACT

SOX AND THE FOREIGN CORRUPT PRACTICES ACT

SOX AND THE FOREIGN CORRUPT PRACTICES ACT

SOX AND THE FOREIGN CORRUPT PRACTICES ACT

SOX AND THE FOREIGN CORRUPT PRACTICES ACT

SOX AND THE FOREIGN CORRUPT PRACTICES ACT

SOX AND THE FOREIGN CORRUPT PRACTICES ACT Levers of Control

SOX AND THE FOREIGN CORRUPT PRACTICES ACT Levers of Control

An interactive control system

CONTROL FRAMEWORKS help Reporting objectives

Works with the corporation s external and internal auditors.

Provides an independent review of management s actions.

Management should avoid:

Companies must make a commitment to competence.

But unreported fraud and intrusions create a false sense of security.

EVENTAvailability of capital; lower or higher costs of IDENTIFICATION capital

RISK ASSESSMENT AND RISK RESPONSE

The ERM model indicates four ways to respond to risk:

RISK ASSESSMENT AND RISK RESPONSE

The ERM model indicates four ways to respond to risk:

RISK ASSESSMENT AND RISK RESPONSE

The ERM model indicates four ways to respond to risk:

RISK ASSESSMENT AND RISK RESPONSE

The ERM model indicates four ways to respond to risk:

Reduce it Accept it Share it Avoid it

RISK ASSESSMENT AND RISK RESPONSE Accountants:

RISK ASSESSMENT AND RISK RESPONSE

Avoid, share, or accept risk

Reduce risk by implementing set of controls to guard against threat

RISK ASSESSMENT AND RISK RESPONSE Estimate Likelihood and Impact

Avoid, share, or accept risk

Reduce risk by implementing set of controls to guard against threat

RISK ASSESSMENT AND RISK RESPONSE

Avoid, share, or accept risk

Reduce risk by implementing set of controls to guard against threat

RISK ASSESSMENT AND RISK RESPONSE

Avoid, share, or accept risk

Reduce risk by implementing set of controls to guard against threat

RISK ASSESSMENT AND RISK RESPONSE Estimate Costs and Benefits

Avoid, share, or accept risk

Reduce risk by implementing set of controls to guard against threat