Communication Theory (EC 2252) Prof.J.B.Bhattacharjee K.

Senthil Kumar
ECE Department Rajalakshmi Engineering College
1

Review of Spectral characteristics



Periodic and Non-periodic Signals: A signal is said to

be periodic, if it exhibits periodicity. i.e., x(t +T)=x(t) , for all values of t. Periodic signal has the property that it is unchanged by a time shift of T. A signal that does not satisfy the above periodicity property is called a non-periodic signal. Periodic signals can be represented using the Fourier Series. Non-periodic signals can be represented using the Fourier Transform. Both Fourier series and Fourier Transform deal with the representation of the signals as a combination of sine and cosine waves.

Fourier Series


Fourier series: a complicated waveform analyzed into a number of harmonically related sine and cosine functions A continuous periodic signal x(t) with a period T may be represented by:  x(t)= t + Bk sin k t)+ A0 k=1 (Ak cos k Dirichlet conditions must be placed on x(t) for the series to be valid: the integral of the magnitude of x(t) over a complete period must be finite, and the signal can only have a finite number of discontinuities in any finite interval

Fourier Series Equations

Fourier series represents a periodic signal Tp in terms of frequency components:
x(t) !
We
k ! g

The

X k e ik

0t

where

! 2T / T p

get the Fourier series coefficients as follows: 1  ik t

Xk ! Tp
Tp

x(t)e

dt

complex exponential Fourier coefficients are a sequence of complex numbers representing the frequency component 0k.

The

Periodic signals represented by Fourier Series have Discrete spectra.

The Fourier Transform

 Fourier

transform is used for the nonperiodic signals. A Fourier transform converts the signal from the time domain to the spectral domain.  Continuous Fourier Transform:

! g ht e dt g h ! H  f 2Tift df t e g
H f
 2Tift

Non-periodic signals represented by Fourier transform have Continuous spectra.

Fourier Transform Pairs

Note: stands for rectangular function. stands for triangular function.

Introduction to Communication Systems

Communication Basic process of exchanging information from one location (source) to destination (receiving end). Refers process of sending, receiving and processing of information/signal/input from one point to another point.
Flow of information Source Destination

Figure 1 : A simple communication system

9

Electronic Communication System defined as the whole mechanism of sending and receiving as well as processing of information electronically from source to destination. Example Radiotelephony, broadcasting, point-to-point, mobile communications, computer communications, radar and satellite systems.
10

Objectives
Communication System to produce an accurate replica of the transmitted information that is to transfer information between two or more points (destinations) through a communication channel, with minimum error.

11

NEED FOR COMMUNICATION



Interaction purposes enables people to interact in a timely fashion on a global level in social, political, economic and scientific areas, through telephones, electronic-mail and video electronicconference. Transfer Information Tx in the form of audio, video, texts, computer data and picture through facsimile, telegraph or telex and internet. Broadcasting Broadcast information to masses, through radio, television or teletext.
12

Terms Related To Communications



Message physical manifestation produced by the information source and then converted to electrical signal before transmission by the transducer in the transmitter. Transducer Device that converts one form of energy into another form. Input Transducer placed at the transmitter which convert an input message into an electrical signal. Example Microphone which converts sound energy to electrical energy.
Message Input Transducer Electrical Signal
13

Output Transducer placed at the receiver which converts the electrical signal into the original message. Example Loudspeaker which converts electrical energy into sound energy.
Electrical Signal Output Transducer Message

Signal electrical voltage or current which varies with time and is used to carry message or information from one point to another.
14

Elements of a Communication System

The basic elements are : Source, Transmitter, Channel, Receiver and Destination.
Information Source Transmitter Channel Transmission Medium Receiver Destination

Noise

Figure : Basic Block Diagram of a Communication System

15

Function of each Element.

Information Source the communication system exists to send messages. Messages come from voice, data, video and other types of information. Transmitter Transmit the input message into electrical signals such as voltage or current into electromagnetic waves such as radio waves, microwaves that is suitable for transmission and compatible with the channel. Besides, the transmitter also do the modulation and encoding (for digital signal).
16

Block Diagram of a Transmitter

Transmitting Antenna Modulating Signal Audio Amplifier RF Amplifier

Modulator

Carrier Signal

5 minutes exercise; Describe the sequence of events that happen at the radio waves station during news broadcast?
17

Channel/Medium is the link or path over which information flows from the source to destination. Many links combined will establish a communication networks. There are 5 criteria of a transmission system; Capacity, Performance, Distance, Security and Cost which includes the installation, operation and maintenance. 2 main categories of channel that commonly used are; line (guided media) and free space (unguided media)
18

Receiver Receives the electrical signals or electromagnetic waves that are sent by the transmitter through the channel. It is also separate the information from the received signal and sent the information to the destination. Basically, a receiver consists of several stages of amplification, frequency conversion and filtering.
19

Block Diagram of a Receiver

Receiving Antenna RF Amplifier Intermediate Frequency Amplifier Audio Amplifier

Mixer Local Oscillator

Demodulator

Destination

Destination is where the user receives the information, such as loud speaker, visual display, computer monitor, plotter and printer.
20

Analog Modulation
 Baseband


Transmission

Baseband signal is the information either in a digital or analogue form. Transmission of original information whether analogue or digital, directly into transmission medium is called baseband transmission. Example: intercom (figure below)
Audio Amplifier Wire
21

Voice

Microphone

Audio Amplifier

Voice Speaker

Baseband signal is not suitable for long distance communication.



Hardware limitations
 

Requires very long antenna Baseband signal is an audio signal of low frequency. For example voice, range of frequency is 0.3 kHz to 3.4 kHz. The length of the antenna required to transmit any signal at least 1/10 of its wavelength ( ). Therefore, L = 100km (impossible!) Simultaneous transmission of audio signals will cause interference with each other. This is due to audio signals having the same frequency range and receiver stations cannot distinguish the signals.
22

Interference with other waves



Modulationof modifying a Modulation defined as the process

carrier wave (radio wave) systematically by the modulating signal. This process makes the signal suitable for transmission and compatible with the channel. Resultant signal modulated signal 2 types of modulation; Analog Modulation and Digital Modulation. Analogue Modulation to transfer an analogue low pass signal over an analogue bandpass channel. Digital Modulation to transfer a digital bit stream the carrier is a periodic train and one of the pulse parameter (amplitude, width or position) changes according to the audio signal.
23

Purpose of Modulation Process in Communication Systems



To generate modulated signal that is suitable for transmission and compatible with the channel. To allow efficient transmission increase transmission speed and distance, eg; 1. By using high frequency carrier signal, the information (voice) can travel and propagate through the air at greater distances and shorter transmission time 2. Also, high frequency signal is less prone to noise and interference. Certain types of modulation have the useful property of suppressing both noise and interference 3. For example, FM use limiter to reduce noise and keep the signals amplitude constant. PCM systems use repeaters to generate the signal along the transmission path.
24

Amplitude Modulation (AM)



Objectives:Objectives:

 

  

Recognize AM signal in the time domain, frequency domain and trigonometric equation form Calculate the percentage of modulation index Calculate the upper sidebands, lower sidebands and bandwidth of an AM signal by given the carrier and modulating signal frequencies Calculate the power related in AM signal Define the terms of DSBSC, SSB and VSB Understand the modulator and demodulator operations
25

Modulation


Introduction

 

The alteration of the amplitude, phase or frequency of an oscillator in accordance with another signal. Input signal is encoded in a format suitable for transmission A low frequency information signal is encoded over a higher frequency signal Sinusoidal wave, v c ! Vc sin 2Tfc t Information signal, v m ! Vm sin 2Tfm t Higher frequency signal which is being modulated To counter the effects of multi path fading and time-delay timespread
26

  

Carrier Signal


Modulating Signal/Base band



Modulated Wave


Modulation Schemes


Modulation Schemes
Carrier Signal,
Vc

Modulating Signal, Vm Modulated Signal VAM

VPM VFM

27

Amplitude Modulation


Time Domain

Frequency Domain

28

AM Modulator
Information Signal v m ! Vm sin 2Tfm t

Modulator

Output

VAM ! Vc sin 2Tfc t  Vm sin 2Tfm t (sin 2Tfc t )

Carrier Signal

v c ! Vc sin 2Tfc t

29

Amplitude Modulation
Vc

- Vc Vm

- Vm Vam

- Vam

30

Modulation Index


Modulation Index, m


Indicates the amount that the carrier signal is modulated. It is an expression of the amount of power in the sidebands. Modulation level ranges = 0-1 where 0 0 = no modulation 1 = full modulation >1 = distortion

Vm m! Vc

V max  V min m! V max  V min

31

Modulation Index

Vm m! Vc
32

Modulation Index

Vmax

Vmin Vmin (p-p)

Vmax (p-p)

V max  V min m! V max  V min

33

Modulation Index
m=0 m = 0.5

m=1

34

Bandwidth
VC mVc 2
mVc 2

fc-fm

fc

fc+fm

Bandwidth for AM signal,

B ! (fc  fm )  (fc  fm ) B ! 2fm

35

Power Distributions

fc-fm

fc

fc+fm

Total transmitted power, PT

PT ! PC  PLSB  PUSB


If R= 1,

m2 PT ! PC 1  2
36

Double Side Band Suppressed Carrier (DSBSC)

It is a technique where it is transmitting both the sidebands without the carrier (carrier is being suppressed/cut)  Characteristics:  Power content less  Same bandwidth  Disadvantages - receiver is complex and expensive.

37

Single Side Band (SSB)



Improved DSBSC and standard AM, which waste power and occupy large bandwidth


SSB is a process of transmitting one of the sidebands of the standard AM by suppressing the carrier and one of the sidebands

Advantages:  Saving power  Reduce BW by 50%  Increase efficiency, increase SNR Disadvantages  Complex circuits for frequency stability

38

Vestigial Side Band (VSB)

 

 

VSB is mainly used in TV broadcasting for their video transmissions. TV signal consists of  Audio signal transmitted by FM  Video signal transmitted by VSB A video signal consists a range of frequency and fmax = 4.5 MHz. If it transmitted using conventional AM, the required BW is 9 MHz (BW=2fm). But according to the standard, TV signal is limited to 7 MHz only So, to reduce the BW, a part of the LSB of picture signal is not fully transmitted.
39

Vestigial Side Band (VSB)



The frequency spectrum for the TV signal / VSB:

Video Carrier Total TV signal bandwidth = 7 MHz
4.5 MHz

Audio Carrier

Lower Video Bands

Upper Video Bands

Lower Audio Bands

Upper Audio Bands f (MHz)

1.25

5.75

6.25

6.75

7.0

40

Modulator Circuits
B Carrier A C D Output E Modulating Signal

41

Modulator Circuits
A. Modulating Signal

B. Carrier

C. Sum of carrier and modulating signal

D. Diode current

E. AM output across tuned circuit

42

Demodulator
A B C

AM Signal

43

Demodulator
A. AM signal

B. Current pulses through diode

C. Demodulating signal

D. Modulating signal

44

Frequency Modulation (FM)



Objectives:Objectives:

 

 

Recognize FM signal in the time domain, frequency domain and trigonometric equation form Calculate the percentage of modulation index Calculate the upper sidebands, lower sidebands and bandwidth of an FM signal by Carsonss Rule and Bessel Function Table Calculate the power related in FM signal Understand the modulator and demodulator of FM

45

Introduction
 

 

FM is the process of varying the frequency of a carrier wave in proportion to a modulating signal. The amplitude of the carrier is kept constant while its frequency is varied by the amplitude of the modulating signal. In all types of modulation, the carrier wave is varied by the AMPLITUDE of the modulating signal. FM signal does not have an envelope, therefore the FM receiver does not have to respond to amplitude variations it can ignore noise to some extent.
46

Frequency Modulation

47

Frequency Modulation


The importance features about FM waveforms are:

 

The frequency varies The rate of change of carrier frequency changes is the same as the frequency of the information signal The amount of carrier frequency changes is proportional to the amplitude of the information signal The amplitude is constant

48

Frequency Modulation


Carrier Signal
 

Sinusoidal wave

v c ! Vc sin 2Tfc t
Information signal

Modulating Signal/Base band

 

v m ! Vm sin 2Tfm t
Higher frequency signal which is being modulated

Modulated Wave
 

v FM ! Vc cos ( 2Tfc t  F sin 2Tfm t )

Where

F!

KVm 2Tfm
49

Frequency Modulation


Time Domain

Frequency Domain

50

FM Modulator

51

FM Modulator
Information Signal v m ! Vm sin 2Tfm t

Modulator

Output

v FM ! Vc cos (2Tfc t  F sin 2Tfm t )

Carrier Signal

v c ! Vc sin 2Tfc t

52

Frequency


Carrier Frequency


As in FM system, carrier frequency in FM systems must be higher than the information signal frequency.

Maximum Frequency

fma x ! fc  (f


Minimum Frequency

fmin ! fc  (f


Carrier Swing

fcs ! 2 (f
53

Modulation Index


Modulation Index, m @


 

Indicates the amount that the carrier signal is modulated. It is an expression of the amount of power in the sidebands. Modulation level ranges = 0 g Where
f = fd = frequency deviation fm = modulating frequency Vm = amplitude of modulating signal

(f m! fm

kVm (f ! 2T
54

Modulation Index


=1

=5

55

Modulation Index

= 25

56

Modulation Index

57

Bandwidth

Using Bessel Function, the bandwidth for FM signal,

BW ! 2nfm
n = number of pairs of the significant sidebands fm = the frequency the modulating signal
58

Bandwidth


Using Carsons Rule, to estimate the bandwidth for an FM signal transmission.

BW ! 2( (f  f

m (max)

f = peak frequency deviation fm(max) = highest modulating signal frequency

59

Power Distributions


FM transmitted power, PFM

PFM
where

PC Vrms ! ! R 2R

Vrms

V ! 2

60

Narrowband FM and Wideband FM



Narrowband FM has only a single pair of significant sidebands. The value of modulation index <1. Wideband FM has a large number (theoretically infinite) number of sidebands. The value of modulation index >=1.

Generation of Narrowband FM (NBFM)

_
INTEGRATOR PRODUCT MODULATOR NBFM WAVE

+
MODULATING WAVE -90 PHASE SHIFTER CARRIER WAVE

v FM ! Vc cos (2Tfc t  F sin 2Tfm t )

If F

1, then we have

vNBFM ! Vc cos ( 2Tf c t )  F Vc sin( 2Tf c t ) sin( 2Tf mt )



The modulator splits the carrier into two paths. One path is direct. The other path contains a -90 degree phase shift unit and a product modulator. The difference between the signals in the two paths produces the NBFM signal.

Frequency Modulators


A frequency modulator is a circuit that varies carrier frequency in accordance with the modulating signal. There are two types of frequency modulator circuits. (1) Direct FM: Carrier frequency is directly varied by the message through voltage-controlled oscillator.


 

Eg: Varactor diode modulator.

(2) Indirect FM: Generate NBFM first, then NBFM is frequency multiplied for targeted f.


Eg: Armstrong modulator

FM Varactor Modulator

64

The Operation of the Varactor Modulator



The info signal is applied to the base of the input transistor and appears amplified and inverted at the collector. This low freq signal passes through the RF choke (L1) and is applied across the varactor diode. Varactor diode behaves as voltage controlled capacitor. When low reverse biased voltage is applied, more capacitance is generated and thus decrease the frequency.

When high reverse biased voltage is applied, less capacitance is generated and thus increase the frequency. The varactor diode changes its capacitance in sympathy with the info signal and therefore changes the total value of the capacitance in the tuned circuit. The changing value of capacitance causes the oscillator freq to increase and decrease under the control of the information signal. The output is therefore an FM signal.

Armstrong of indrect FM generation



In this method the message signal is first subjected to NBFM modulator using a crystalcontrolled oscillator for generating carrier. Crystal control provides frequency stability. The NBFM wave is next multiplied in frequency by using a frequency multiplier so as to produce the desired wideband FM.

Frequency Demodulator
 The

FM demodulating circuits used to recover the original modulating signal.

 Any

circuit that will convert a frequency variation in the carrier back into a proportional voltage variation can be used to demodulate or detect FM signals. popular method used for FM demodulation is the Frequency discriminator.

A

Frequency discriminator

Output of the Frequency discriminator

The Frequency discriminator circuit consists of the slope ciruit followed by the envelope detector. The slope circuit converts the instantaneous frequency variations of the FM input signal to instantaneous amplitude variations. These amplitude variations are rectified by the envelope detector to provide a DC output voltage which varies in amplitude and polarity with the input signal frequency.

FM vs AM:
Advantages Better Disadvantages Excessive

noise immunity Rejection of interfering signals because of capture effect Better transmitter efficiency

use of

spectrum More complex and costly circuits

71

Review of Probability
   1. 2. 3.  

Sample Space the space of all possible outcomes ( ) Event a collection of outcomes subset of Probability a measure assigned to the events of a sample space with the following properties for all event A in S P(A) u 0 IfP ( Sand1B are mutually exclusive, A )! P( A 7 B) ! P( A)  P( B) Theorem: P( A 7 B ) ! P ( A)  P( B )  P( A + B ) The Conditional probability of an event A given the occurrence of event B is
P( A B) P( A | B) ! P( B)

 Two

events A and B are independent if

P( A + B ) ! P( A) P( B)

 Random

Variables  A rule which assigns a numerical value to each possible outcomes of a chance experiment.  If the experiment is flipping a coin. Then a random variable X can be defined as :
S1 S2 H T X(S1)=1 X(S2)=-1

 Cumulative  FX (x ) 

Distribution Function (CDF)

Prob{ X e x}

Properties of CDF 1. 0 e FX ( x ) e 1, FX (g) ! 1, FX ( g) ! 0 2. F ( x) is continuous from right, i.e. lim 3. F X ( x ) is a nondecreasing function of x.
X x p x0

FX ( x ) ! FX ( x0 ).

 Probability Density Function (PDF) x dFX ( x ) f X (x ) FX ( x ) ! g f X (t )dt 

dx

 Properties of
P( x1

PDF

f X ( x) u 0
x2
1

g

f X ( x )dx ! 1

X e x2 ) ! FX ( x2 )  FX ( x1 ) ! x f X ( x )df

 Random

Processes: A random process is a mapping from the sample space to an ensemble of time functions.
Sample function The totality of all sample functions is called an ensemble

X1(t) X2(t)

XN(t) t

For a specific time X(tk) is a random variable

Gaussian process


A random process X(t) is a Gaussian process if for all n and for all (t1 t2 ... tn), the sequence of random variables { X(t1), X(t2)... X(tn) } has a jointly Gaussian density function. Central limit theorem  The sum of a large number of independent and identically distributed(i.i.d) random variables getting closer to Gaussian distribution. Thermal noise can be closely modeled by Gaussian process.

 Property


For Gaussian process, knowledge of the mean(m) and covariance(C) provides a complete statistical description of process.

 Property


If a Gaussian process X(t) is passed through a LTI system, the output of the system is also a Gaussian process. The effect of the system on X(t) is simply reflected by the change in mean(m) and covariance(C) of X(t).

Noise Theory


Shot noise: It results from the shot effect in the amplifying devices and active device. It is caused by random variation in the arrival of electrons (or holes) at the output of the devices. For diode, the rms shot noise current is given by:
i n ! 2ei p
f

i n ! rms shot noise e ! charge of electron i p ! direct diode current

f

! bandwidth of system

Thermal noise is the electrical noise arising from the random motion of electrons in a conductor. The noise power generated by a resistor is given by:

Pn ! kT

Pn ! noise power k ! Boltzmann' s constant T ! absolute temperature

f

! bandwidth of system

 White

noise: It is the idealized form of noise, whose spectrum is independent of the operating frequency. The power spectral density of white noise w(t) is Sw(f)=N0 /2. The autocorrelation Rw(t) of white noise is an impulse as shown below.
Sw(f)
N0 2

Rw(X)
N0 H (X ) 2
X

Narrow band noise (Ideal case)

w(t)



BPF

n(t)

  

filtered noise is narrow-band noise narrown(t) = nI(t)cos(2TfCt) - nQ(t)sin(2TfCt) (t)cos(2T (t)sin(2T where nI(t) is inphase, nQ(t) is quadrature component @ filtered signal x(t) x(t) = s(t) + n(t) - Average Noise Power = N0BT
81

Noise Figure


Consider a signal source. The signal to noise ratio (SNR) available from the source is given by:

(S/N) in ! Psi /kT

Psi ! signal power from the source k ! Boltzmann' s constant T ! absolute temperature
f

! bandwidth of system

Consider that the source is connected to an amplifier with gain G. Since all amplifiers contribute noise, the available output SNR will be less than the SNR of the source.

The noise power at the output of the amplifier will be Pno ! GkTH f The noise factor F is defined as :

available S/N power ratio at input F! available S/N power ratio at output Psi Pno Pno v ! F! kTH f GPsi GkTH f


When noise factor is expressed in decibels, it is called noise figure. Noise figure = (F) dB = 10logF

The noise power expressed in terms of a temperature is callled Noise Temperature. If the amplifier noise is Pna , then the equivalent noise temperature Te of the amplifier is given by the equation Te ! Pna / kH f

Since Pna ! (F - 1)kT0H f The noise temperature can be written as Te ! Pna / kH f ! (F - 1)kT0H f / kH f ! (F - 1)T0 @ Te ! (F - 1)T0

AM SUPERHETERODYNE RECEIVER

RF section: It generally consists of a pre-selector and an amplifier stage. The pre-selector is a broad tuned band-pass filter with adjustable center frequency that is tuned to the desired carrier frequency. The other functions of the RF section are detecting, band limiting and amplifying the received RF signals. Mixer/converter section: It is the stage of downconverts the received RF frequencies to intermediate frequencies (IF) which are simply frequencies that fall somewhere between the RF and information frequencies, hence the name intermediate. This section also includes a local oscillator (LO).

IF Section: IF or intermediate frequency section is the stage where its primary functions are amplification and selectivity. AM detector Section: AM detector section is the stage that demodulates the AM wave and converts it to the original information signal. Audio section: Audio section is the stage that amplifies the recovered information.

 

Performance of CW Modulation Systems

 Introduction


- Receiver Noise (Channel Noise) : additive, White, and Gaussian

 Receiver 

Model 1. RX Model
Sw(f)
N0 2
N0 = KTe where K = Boltzmanns constant Te = equivalent noise Temp. Average noise power per unit bandwidth

f
Rw(X)
N0 H (X ) 2

X
88

SNR
 

The signal x(t) available for demodulation is defined by

x(t ) ! s (t )  n(t )

The output signal-to-noise ratio (SNR)O is defined as the ratio of the average power of the demodulated message signal to the average power of the noise, both measured at the receiver output.  The channel signal-to-noise ratio, (SNR)C is defined as the ratio of the average power of the modulated signal to the average power of the channel noise in the message bandwidth, both measure at the receiver input.  For the purpose of comparing different CW modulation systems, we normalize the receiver performance by dividing (SNR)O by (SNR)C. This ratio is called figure of merit for the receiver and is defined as
Figure of merit ! ( SNR) O ( SNR )C

Noise in DSB-SC Receivers

Lets consider the case of DSB-SC. The expression for the modulated signal is given as s (t ) ! AC cos(2Tf c t ) m(t ) The carrier wave is statistically independent of the message signal. The average power of DSB-SC modulated 2 component of s(t) is Ac P m

2
90

With a noise PSD of N0/2 the average noise power in the message bandwidth W equals WN0 (baseband scenario). Pm is the power of the message. Hence we have
Ac2 Pm (SNR) C ! 2WN 0

Finding an expression for (SNR)O, we have

x(t ) ! s (t )  n(t )
! Ac cos2Tf c t m(t )  nI (t ) cos2Tf c t  nQ (t ) sin 2Tf c t
v (t ) ! x (t ) cos2Tf ct ! Ac 1 1 1 m(t )  nI (t )  ?Ac m(t )  nI (t )Acos4Tf c t  nQ (t ) sin 4Tf c t 2 2 2 2

Output of the LPF is

1 1 y (t ) ! Ac m(t )  nI (t ) 2 2

The power of the signal component at the receiver output is A2 Pm / 4 . The average power of the filtered noise is 2WN0.
C

S N ( f  f c )  S N ( f  f c ), S N I ( f ) ! S NQ ( f ) ! 0 ,

W e f e W elsewhere

The average noise power at the receiver output is 1 2 1

2WN 0 ! WN 0 2 2

Hence we have,
(SNR)O,DSB-SC Ac2 Pm / 4 Ac2 Pm ! ! WN 0 / 2 2WN 0

( SNR ) O Figure of merit ! !1 ( SNR ) C

Noise in AM receiver using envelope detection



The expression for AM signal is given as s (t ) ! Ac ?  k a m(t )Acos2Tf c t 1 where it is assumed that k a m(t ) 1

The average power of the carrier in the AM signal s(t) is The average power of the information bearing component 2 2 Ac k a m(t ) cos2Tf c t is AC k a Pm / 2 2 2 AC (1  k a Pm ) / 2 Average power of the full AM signal s(t) is

2 AC / 2.

Hence, the channel signal to noise ratio for AM is

( SNR ) C , AM
2 2 AC 1  k a Pm ! 2WN 0

Finding an expression for (SNR)O, we have

x(t ) ! s (t )  n(t )

x(t ) ! ?AC  AC k a m(t )  nI (t )Acos(2Tf c t )  nQ (t ) sin(2Tf c t )

y (t ) ! envelope of x(t )
y (t ) } AC k a m(t )  nI (t )
( SNR ) O , AM !
2 2 AC k a Pm

2WN 0

( SNR ) O Figure of Merit ( SNR ) C

!
AM

k a2 Pm
2 1  k a Pm

Threshold Effect


When carrier-to-noise ratio is small as compared to unity the noise term dominates the performance of the envelope detector and is completely different. Representing the narrowband noise n(t) in terms of its envelope and phase, we have n(t ) ! r (t ) cos?2Tf ct  = (t )A The phasor diagram for x(t) = s(t) + n(t) becomes
AC ?  k a m(t )Asin?= (t )A 1
ka m
= (t ) AC ?  k a m(t )Acos?= (t )A 1

AC

?1 

(t ) A

The noise envelope is used as a reference here due to its dominance. Here it is assumed that Ac is small as compared to r(t). If we neglect the quadrature component of the signal with respect to the noise we have y (t ) } r (t )  AC cos?= (t )A AC k a m(t ) cos?= (t )A

Hence, when carrier-to-noise ratio is small the detector has no component that is strictly proportional to the message signal m(t). Recalling that = (t ) is uniformly distributed over radians. Hence, it follows that we have a complete loss of information at the detector output (as expected value will be zero). This loss of information m(t) at the output of the envelope detector is called the threshold effect.

Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis

FM results is an unacceptably low SNR at the high frequency end of the message spectrum. To offset this undesirable occurrence, pre-emphasis and de-emphasis technique is used.  Pre-emphasis consists in artificially boosting the spectral components in the higher part of the message spectrum. This is accomplished by passing message signal m(t) , through the pre-emphasis filter, denoted Hpe(f) . The preemphasized signal is used to frequency modulate the carrier at the transmitting end.  In the receiver, the inverse operation, de-emphasis, is performed. This is accomplished by passing the discriminator output through a filter, called the de-emphasis filter, denoted Hde(f ) .


Pre-emphasis and de-emphasis in FM

P.S.D. of noise at FM Rx output

P.S.D. of typical message signal

H de (f ) !

1 , H pe (f )

-W ef eW

P.S.D of noise nd (t) at the discriminator output N 0f 2 SNd (f) ! A 2 C 0 f e BT 2

98

otherwise

Information theory
 What is information theory ?  Information theory is needed to enable the communication system to carry information (signals) from sender to receiver over a communication channel
it deals with mathematical modelling and analysis of a communication system its major task is to answer to the questions of signal compression and data transfer rate.


Those answers can be found and solved by entropy and channel capacity

Information is a measure of uncertainty. The less is the probability of occurrence of a certain message, the higher is the information. Since the information is closely associated with the uncertainty of the occurrence of a particular symbol, When the symbol occurs the information associated with its occurrence is defined as:
1 I k ! log ( ) ! - log(Pk ) Pk where Pk is the probability of occurrence of symbol ' k' and I k is the information carried by symbol ' k'.

Entropy
is defined in terms of probabilistic behaviour of a source of information  In information theory the source output are discrete random variables that have a certain fixed finite alphabet with certain probabilities
 Entropy


Entropy is an average information content for the given source symbol. (bits/message)
H !
k !0 K 1

1 ) pk log 2 ( pk

 Rate  If

of information:

a source generates at a rate of r messages per second, the rate of information R is defined as the average number of bits of information per second. is the average number of bits of information per message. Hence
R = rH bits/sec

 H

Source Coding


Source coding (a.k.a lossless data compression) means that we will remove redundant information from the signal prior the transmission. Basically this is achieved by assigning short descriptions to the most frequent outcomes of the source output and vice versa. The common source-coding schemes are sourceprefix coding, huffman coding, lempel-ziv lempelcoding.

Source Coding Theorem



Source coding theorem states that the output of any information source having entropy H units per symbol can be encoded into an alphabet having N symbols in such a way that the source symbols are represented by code words having a weighted average length not less than H/logN. H/logN. Hence source coding theorem says that encoding of messages from a source with entropy H can be done, bounded by the fundamental information theoretic limitation that the Minimum average number of symbols/message is H/logN.

Source coding example

coding has an important feature that it is always uniquely decodable and it also satisfies KraftKraftMcMillan (see formula 10.22 p. 624) inequality term  Prefix codes can also be referred to as instantaneous codes, meaning that the decoding process is achieved immediately
 Prefix

Shannon-Fano Coding: In ShannonFano coding, the symbols are arranged in order from most probable to least probable, and then divided into two sets whose total probabilities are as close as possible to being equal. All symbols then have the first digits of their codes assigned; symbols in the first set receive "0" and symbols in the second set receive "1". As long as any sets with more than one member remain, the same process is repeated on those sets, to determine successive digits of their codes. When a set has been reduced to one symbol, of course, this means the symbol's code is complete and will not form the prefix of any other symbol's code.

Huffman Coding: Create a list for the symbols, in decreasing order of probability. The symbols with the lowest probability are assigned a 0 and a 1. These two symbols are combined into a new symbol with the probability equal to the sum of their individual probabilities. The new symbol is placed in the list as per its probability value. The procedure is repeated until we are left with 2 symbols only for which 0 and 1 are assigned. Huffman code is the bit sequence obtained by working backwards and tracking sequence of 0s and 1s assigned to that symbol and its successors.

Lempel-Ziv Coding: A drawback of Huffman code is that knowledge of probability model of source is needed. Lempel-Ziv coding is used to overcome this drawback. while Huffmans algorithm encodes blocks of fixed size into binary sequences of variable length, Lempel-Ziv encodes blocks of varying length into blocks of fixed size. Lempel-Ziv coding is performed by parsing the source data into segments that are the shortest subsequences not encountered before.

Mutual Information
 

Source X

Channel

Receiver Y

Consider a communication system with a source of entropy H(X). The entropy on the receiver side be H(Y). H(X|Y) and H(Y|X) are the conditional entropies, and H(X,Y) is the joint entropy of X and Y. Then the Mutual information between the source X and the receiver Y can be expressed as: I(X,Y) = H(X) - H(X|Y) H(X) is the uncertainty of source X and H(X/Y) is the uncertainty of X given Y. Hence the quantity H(X) - H(X|Y) represents the reduction in uncertainty of X given the knowledge of Y. Hence I(X,Y) is termed mutual information.

Channel Capacity


Capacity in the channel is defined as a intrinsic ability of a channel to convey information. Using mutual information the channel capacity of a discrete memoryless channel is the maximum average mutual information in any single use of channel over all possible probability distributions. Thus Channel capacity C=max( I(X,Y) ).

Shannons Channel Coding theorem



The Shannon theorem states that given a noisy channel with channel capacity C and information transmitted at a rate R, then if R < C there exist codes that allow the probability of error at the receiver to be made arbitrarily small. This means that theoretically, it is possible to transmit information nearly without error at any rate below a limiting rate, C. The converse is also important. If R > C, an arbitrarily small probability of error is not achievable. All codes will have a probability of error greater than a certain positive minimal level, and this level increases as the rate increases. So, information cannot be guaranteed to be transmitted reliably across a channel at rates beyond the channel capacity.

Shannon-Hartley theorem or Information Capacity Theorem



An application of the channel capacity concept to an additive white Gaussian noise channel with B Hz bandwidth and signal-to-noise ratio S/N is the Information Capacity Theorem. It states that for a band-limited Gaussian channel operating in the presence of additive Gaussian noise, the channel capacity is given by C = B log2(1 + S/N) where C is the capacity in bits per second, B is the bandwidth of the channel in Hertz, and S/N is the signal-to-noise ratio.

Band width and SNR tradeoff



As the bandwidth of the channel increases, it is possible to make faster changes in the information signal, thereby increasing the information rate. However, as B g, the channel capacity does not become infinite since, with an increase in bandwidth, the noise power also increases. As S/N increases, one can increase the information rate while still preventing errors due to noise. For no noise, S/N g and an infinite information rate is possible irrespective of bandwidth.

Implications of the Information Capacity Theorem

Rate distortion theory



Rate distortion theory is the branch of information theory addressing the problem of determining the minimal amount of entropy or information that should be communicated over a channel such that the source can be reconstructed at the receiver with a given distortion. Rate distortion theory can be used for the given below situations: 1. Source coding in which the coding alphabet cannot exactly represent the source information. 2. when the information is to be transmitted at a rate greater than channel capacity.

  

Lower the bit rate R by allowing some acceptable distortion D of the signal

 Rate

Distortion Function:  The functions that relate the rate and distortion are found as the solution of the following minimization problem.

 In

the above equation, I(X,Y) is the Mutual information.

Rate distortion function for Gaussian memory-less source

 If

Px(X) is Gaussian, variance is W and if we assume that successive samples of the signal x are stochastically independent, we find the following analytical expression for the rate distortion function.

A Plot of the Rate distortion function for Gaussian source

Lossy Source Coding



Lossy source coding is the representation of the source in digital form with as few bits as possible while maintaining an acceptable loss of information. In lossy source coding, the source output is encoded at a rate less than the source entropy. Hence there is reduction in the information content of the source. Eg: It is not possible to digitally encode an analog signal with a finite number of bits without producing some distortion.