Transforms heat partly into work Working substance undergoes : heat exchange, change in volume or change in phase For

or those operating in a cycle, U=0 hence, net heat = net work Interacts with: Hot reservoir which supplies heat QH at constant temperature TH Cold reservoir, which absorbs heat Qc at constant temperature TC

Let: QH = heat absorbed /cycle Qc = heat released / cycle Q = net heat / cycle W = net work done by substance/cycle Then in a cycle,
U=0 and Q = W = QH + QC = QH  QC

QH  QC QC W ! = 1 eT ! QH QH QH

This is 100 % if QC ! 0. From experience, this is not possible

Engine Statement of the Second Law:

No heat engine, reversible or irreversible, operating in a cycle, can take in heat from its surrounding and convert it all into work. Kelvin (1851)

13/551. What is the efficiency of an electric generator that produces 1.17 kW h /kg of coal burned? The heat of combustion of coal is 6.71 x 106 J/kg. 16/551 The efficiency of an engine is 0.21. For every 1 kJ of heat absorbed by the engine, how much a. net work is done by it b. How much is released by it?

21/551 An engine works at 30 % efficiency. The engine raises a 5 kg-crate from rest to a vertical height of 10 m at which point the crate has a speed of 4 m/s. How much heat input is required for this engine?

Gasoline Engine

Operations in a GASOLINE ENGINE: The Otto Cycle 1. Intake Stroke Intake valve opens exhaust valve closes, piston descends, Air-gasoline vapor enters through the intake valve. As piston descends, volume increases from V to rV (where r = compression ratio) 2. Compression Stroke Intake valve closes. Mixture is compressed adiabatically to volume V. Mixture is ignited by spark plug 3. Power Stroke Heated gas expands adiabatically back to rV, pushing the piston. (W > 0) 4. Exhaust Stroke Exhaust valve opens, combustion gases rush out. Cylinder is ready for the next cycle.

Along cd: QH ! nCv Td  Tc Along eb: e! QH  Qc QH QC ! nCv Tb  Te ! nCv Td  Tc  nCv Tb  Te nCv Td  Tc !

Td

 Tc  Tb  Te

Td

 Tc

For the adiabatic processes bc and de:

K TbVb 1

! TcVcK 1
K ! Td Vd 1

p Tb rV

K 1

! TcV K 1 ! Td V K 1

Tc ! Tb r K 1
K TeVe 1

p Te rV

K 1

Td ! Te r K 1 e! Te r
K 1

 Tb r
K 1

K 1

 Tb  Te
K 1

Te r

 Tb r

Te  Tb r K 1  1 

Te

 Tb r K 1

! 1

1 r K 1

Thermal efficiency,

eT ! 1 

1 r
K 1

et increased by increasing r, but this causes increase in temperature, mixture explodes spontaneously during compression. This is pre-ignition detonation, heard as a knocking sound can damage the engine. For high- octane gasoline, maximum practical r =10 Note: Cycle assumes air-fuel mixture behaves as ideal gas. Neglects friction, turbulence, heat loss through cylinder walls, incomplete combustion Actual efficiencies in typical gas engines is only about 20 %

1.

The Otto-cycle engine in a Toyota Cecilia GT has a compression ratio r = 9.5 a. What is the ideal efficiency of the engine? Use K = 1.4 b. Other sports cars have engines with a slightly higher compression ratio, r = 10. How much increase in the ideal efficiency results from this increase in the compression ratio?

2. For a gas with K = 1.4, what compression ratio r must an Otto cycle have to achieve an ideal efficiency of 60 %?

1. Intake stroke Air enters the cylinder 2. Compression Stroke Adiabatically compressed to a very high temperature Fuel injected at the end of stroke burns without ignition spark plug 4. Power Stroke First part is combustion at constant Pressure Last part is adiabatic expansion 5. Exhaust Stroke Combustion gases cooled at constant volume

Note: No pre-ignition (no fuel yet during compression) r is much higher (15 to 20) Theoretical efficiency is about 0.65 to 0.7 Diesel engine typically heavier than gas engines, often harder to stop; fuel-injection system requires expensive high-precision machine; requires no carburator or ignition system

 Conversion of heat to work, an irreversible process Heat flow through a finite T, an irreversible process For maximum engine efficiency, irreversible processes must be avoided. Every process that involves heat transfer must be isothermal at either TH or TC Any process in which the temperature of the working substance changes must be adiabatic These conditions are assumed in a Carnot cycle.

Along ab:

Vb Qh ! nRTh ln Va

Along cd:

Vd Qc ! nRTc ln Vc

Qh  Qc e! Qh

Vd Vd nRTc ln Tc ln Vc Vc !1  !1  Vb Vb Th ln nRTh ln Va Va
K 1

Along bc:

Vb K 1 K 1 ThVb ! TcVc p Vc

Tc ! Th
K 1

Along da:

Va K 1 K 1 p ThVa ! TcVd Vd

Tc ! Th

 Vb Vc

K 1

Tc Va ! ! Th Vd

K 1

Vb Vc p ! Vc Vd

Vb Vc Vd ! ln !  ln ln Vc Vd Vc
Vd Tc ln Vc Vd Th  ln Vc

eT ! 1 

TC e !1 TH

24/552 An ideal engine has an efficiency of 0.725 and uses gas from a hot reservoir at a temperature of 622 K. What is the temperature of the cold reservoir to which it exhausts heat? 26/552 In a certain steam engine, the boiler temperature is 127 0C and the cold reservoir is at 27 0C. While this engine does 8.34 kJ of work, what minimum amount of heat must be discharged into the cold reservoir?

28/552 An engine operates between temperatures of 650 K and 350 K at 65 % of its maximum possible efficiency. a. What is the efficiency of this engine? b. If 6,300 J is exhausted to the low temperature reservoir, hoe much work does the engine do?

18-40/590 Young and Freedman A Carnot engine whose low-temperature reservoir is at 200 K has an efficiency of 40 %. An engineer is assigned the problem of increasing this to 50 %. a. By how many kelvins must TH be increased if Tc is to remain constant? b. By how many kelvins must Tc be decreased if TH is to remain constant?

18-41/590 Young and Freedman A heat engine takes 0.2 mol of a diatomic gas around the cycle shown. Process bc is adiabatic. a. Find the pressure and volume at points a, b and c. a. Calculate Q, W and (U for each process and for the cycle. b. What is the thermal efficiency of the heat engine? c. How does compare with a Carnot engine operating between the same minimum and maximum temperatures?

48/473 Cutnell A Carnot engine has an efficiency of 0.4. The Kelvin temperature of its hot reservoir is quadrupled, and the Kelvin temperature of its cold reservoir is doubled. What is the efficiency that results from these changes? 52/473 Cutnell The hot reservoir for a Carnot engine is at 890 K while the cold reservoir is at 670 K. The heat input for this engine is 4800 J. The 670-K reservoir also serves as the hot reservoir for a second Carnot engine. The 2 nd engine uses the rejected heat of the first engine as input and extracts additional work from it. The rejected heat from engine 2 goes into a reservoir at 420 K. Find the total work delivered by the 2 engines.

 Heat engine operating in reverse Extracts heat QC from food, rejects heat QH to the surrounding, takes in work in the process. Refrigerant is a low-boiling fluid. Example., freon (BP= - 30 0C)

 Compression to a high pressure allows freon to liquefy when cooled. At condenser coils, freon cools and liquefy, releasing heat QH to the Environment. At throttling valve, it evaporates and expands adiabatically (temperature further drops). Cold freon expands into the evaporator (cooling coils inside the refrigerator) removing heat QC from foods. Air conditioners operate similarly. Cooling coil is inside the house, and condenser coils outside

Refrigerator statement of the second Law. It is impossible to make a refrigerator operating in a cycle whose sole effect is the transfer of heat from a cooler object to a hotter object Rudolph Clausius

EFFICIENCY OF REFRIGERATOR
Expressed as coefficient of performance, K (or COP or CP)

QC QC QC K! ! ! W QC  QH Q H  QC
If H = rate of heat removal P = power input to compressor =
W t

tH H K! ! Pt P

greater than 1

Typical value is 2.5

Carnot Refrigerator

Carnot Refrigerator
Qc Qc ! K! ! W Qc Q H  Qc 1 QH
Qc QH

TC TH ! TC 1 TH

TC K! TH  TC

Heat Pumps Uses work to heat Qc from the wintry outdoors (the cold reservoir) flow up the temperature hill into a warm house (the hot reservoir). Works in reverse to the air conditioner and the refrigerator. That is, while the air conditioner cools the inside of the house and warms the outdoors, the heat pump warms the house and cools the outdoors.

Th Qh Coefficient of Performance = ! W Th  Tc

22/551 How much heat does a heat pump with a COP of 3.00 deliver when supplied with 1 kJ of electricity? 38/552 An ideal refrigerator keeps its contents at 00C and exhausts heat into the kitchen at 40 0C. For every 1 J of work done, a. How much heat is exhausted? b. How much is removed from the contents?

60/474 Cutnell A Carnot refrigerator is used in a kitchen in which the temperature is kept at 301 k. This ref uses 241 J of heat to remove 2561 J of heat from the food inside. What is the temperature inside the refrigerator? 62/474 Cutnell A Carnot air conditioner maintains the temperature in a house at 297 K on a day when the temperature outside is 311 K. What is the COP of the air conditioner? 64/474 Cutnell How long would a 3 kW space heater have to run to put into a kitchen the same amount of heat to a refrigerator (COP=3) does when it freezes 1.5 kg of water at 20 0C to ice at 0 0C?

40/473 Cutnell Due to a tune up, the efficiency of an automobile engine increases by 5 %. For an input heat of 1,300 J, how much more work does the engine produce after the tune than before? 42/473 Cutnell Engine 1 has an efficiency of 0.18 and requires 5,500 J of input heat to perform a certain amount of work. Engine 2 has an efficiency of 0.26 and performs the same amount of work. How much input heat does the second engine require?

44/473 Cutnell Due to design changes, the efficiency of an engine increases from 0.23 to 0.42. for the same input heat QH, these changes increase the work done by the more efficient engine and reduce the amount of heat rejected to the cold reservoir. Find the ratio of the heat rejected for the improved engine to that of the original engine. 46/473 Cutnell 5000 J of heat is put into a Carnot engine whose hot and cold reservoirs have temperatures of 500 and 200 K respectively. How much heat is converted into work?

44/552 text A reversible refrigerator has a COP = 3.0. How much work must be done to freeze 1 kg of liquid water at 0 0C?