Research Methodology

Meaning and definition of Research Meaning:

1. 2.

Research is directed towards the solution of a problem Research emphasizes the development of generalization of principles or theories that will help in predicting future occurrences

3. 4.

Research demands accurate observation and description Research is based upon observable experience or empirical evidence

5.

Research involves gathering new data from primary or first hand sources or using existing data for a new purpose

6.

Research activities are more often characterized by carefully designed procedures always applying rigorous analysis

7.

Research requires expertise i.e skill necessary to carry out investigation search related literature and to understand and analyze the data gathered

8.

Research strives to be objective and logical, applying every possible test to validate the procedure employed, the data collected and the conclusion reached

9.

Research involves the quest for answers to unsolved problems

10. 11. 12.

Research requires courage Research is characterized by patient and unhurried activity Research is carefully recorded and reported

Definition of Research It is a systematic enquiry seeking facts through objective verifiable methods in order to discover the relationship among them and deduce broad principles or laws

Criteria for Good Research

1.    

Good research is systematic : Structured Specific steps in specific sequence In accordance with defined set of rules Does not reject creative thinking, guessing and intuition in arriving at conclusions Good research is logical

1.

follows logical reasoning

2.  

Good research is empirical Is related to some real life situation Deals with concrete facts that serve as basis for external validity to research results Good research is replicable Results can be verified by replicating the study

3. 

Objectives of Social Research

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Development of knowledge Scientific study of social life Welfare of humanity Classification of facts Social control and prediction

Basic assumption of Social Research

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Possibility of objective study Existence of some social norm or law Causal relationship Representative sample Existence of similar or ideal groups

Difference between research in social science and physical science

Social science

Investigates laws related to man and his behavior Elements are psychological related Basic elements cannot be separated analytically Prediction is difficult due to less exactness Objectivity is difficult to achieve Elements are difficult to measure Society is the laboratory. It is difficult to construct artificial laboratories for study

Searches for physical laws in natural phenomena Elements are physically related

Physical Science

Basic elements can be separated for analysis Prediction is possible due to high degree of exactness Objectivity is easily achieved Elements can be easily measured Physically science is easily studied in laboratories

Types of Research Methods

Research Methods

Historical

Comparative

Structural

Functional

Deductive

Inductive

Examples of deductive & inductive reasoning

Deductive Reasoning 1. All men are mortal Socrates is a man Therefore Socrates is mortal Inductive Reasoning 1. All life forms we know of depend on water to exist All life depends upon water to exist

2. If I study I will get an A in 2. If I study I will get an A in the exam the exam I studied I got an A in the exam Therefore I got an A in Therefore I studied the exam

How to achieve objectivity in social research

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Less dependence on investigator Employing statistical measurement Standardization of terms Use of questionnaire Counter checking Random sampling method Extensive use of computerization

Problems of social research

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Problem of finding good investigator Problem of collecting information Dependence on others Problem of analysing data Problem of questionnaire Temptation of generalization

Research Methodology defined

The procedure by which researchers go about their work of describing, explaining and predicting phenomena is called methodology. y It is the description, explanation and justification of various methods of conducting research.
y

Components of Research methodology

Problem formulation Concept formulation Concept measurement Hypothesis formation Theory formation Data collection Data processing and analysis Report writing and analysis

Steps in Research
Formulation of Research Problem Literature survey Development of a working hypothesis Preparation of Research Design Determining the sample design Collection of data Execution of the project Analysis of data Hypothesis testing Generalization & Interpretation Preparation of Research Report

Types of Research Problems

1. 2. 3.

Empirical problems Analytical problems Normative problems

Sources of Research Problems

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Theory of ones own interest Daily problems Technological changes Unexplored areas Discussion with experts and authorities including research advisor

Criteria of a good Research Problem

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Relation between variables expressed Clarity and unambiguousness Empirical verification Availability of guidance Level of research Experience and creativity Novelty Interesting Importance

Formulating a research problem

y y

Posing a question/s Making declarative statement/s

Defining a research problem

1. 2. 3. 4.

Detail and precision Explicitly state all assumptions Put a fence around the problem to distinguish it from similar problems Define it as a whole and then further define all technical and unusual terms employed in the statement. Remove any chance of misinterpretation

Delimitation of the problem

1. 2.

Define the scope or the limits of the problem Geographical limits, time limits or intervals Urgency and significance of the problem should be indicated

Justification of the problem

Evaluating the problem

1. 2.

3. 4.

Can this problem be solved effectively through the process of research? Is the problem significant? Is an important principle involved? Would a solution make a difference Is the problem a new one? Is research on the problem feasible?

5. Is the problem suitable to me?  Do I have the knowledge or competence to carry out a study of this type?  Is the data accessible?  Will I have the financial resources necessary to carry out the project?  Will I have enough time to complete the project?  Will I have the courage and determination to pursue this study in spite of difficulties?

Concept, Theory & Hypothesis

Anything that describes empirical relationships and phenomena are concepts A good concept 1. Should be clear and precise 2. Should be easy to understand 3. Should avoid multiple meanings 4. Should convey exactly what was intended
y

Theory 1. A speculation about some phenomena 2. They are analytical tools for understanding, explaining and making prediction about a given subject matter 3. They are abstract and conceptual 4. They are never considered right or wrong. They are supported or challenged 5. If some observation contradicts some fundamental assumptions of a theory then the theory is usual revised to conform to new observations.

Hypothesis
(When a researcher observes facts and takes up a problem for analysis he can start by formulating a hypothesis) A hypothesis y Is a tentative solution y A proposition that can be put to test to determine validity y Is adopted provisionally to explain certain events or guide the investigation

Criteria for a sound hypothesis

1.

2.

Principle of Deductibility Based on sound theory Principle of Testability Truth or falsehood is established through scientific inquiry

Types of Hypothesis
1.

Descriptive hypothesis E.g.:

The current unemployment in Tamil Nadu is concentrated in male adults under the age of 25 and with less than 12 years of education

Launch of the yellow brigades and Blue brigades since 2002 has brought down the crime rate in Greater Chennai

2. Relational hypothesis E.g.: Families with higher income spend more on recreational activities Lung cancer is more prevalent in cigarette smokers Relationship between drug use and crime rate

3. Explanatory hypothesis A relationship in which one variable causes or leads to a change in another variable E.g.: Mandatory arrest policy and future patterns of domestic violence

4. Null Hypothesis A hypothesis that is stated negatively. Purpose of a negative hypothesis is to avoid personal bias of the investigator in the matter of collection of data. E.g.: Secondary trauma does not affect the performance of police officers in Tirunelveli District

Functions of a hypothesis
1. To test theories 2. To suggest theories 3. To describe social phenomena

Research Design
y y y y

It is a plan of action It is a operational pattern or structure It is a framework It is a blueprint collected from which source by what procedures

- that indicates what information is to be

Important concepts related to Research Design

1.

Dependent and Independent variable

E.g.: To study the relationship between impulsivity (independent variable) and criminal behaviour (dependent variable)

What is a variable? A variable is something that can take on different quantitative values.

Types of variables
y

When a variable can take on values even in decimal points it is a continuous variables or scale variables. E.g. Length, volume

When a variable can take only integer values then they are discrete variables. E.g. : Age, stress scores

When qualitative phenomena are expressed as variables e.g.: gender, caste, religion, presence or absence of a trait or an attribute, then such variables are called nominal variables. Nominal variables have no relationship between themselves.

When variables expressed as grading or classes in some (increasing / decreasing) order then they are called ordinal variables. E.g.: Age groups, Income groups

Extraneous variable Independent variable that is not related to the study but affects the dependent variable are extraneous variable. Eg: Recent drop in crime rates in New York city (dependent variable) Implementation of major changes in policing ( independent variable) Decline in the ratio of young males to the general population (extraneous variable)
.

3.

Control It is the ways and means by which a researchers can reduce the effect of the extraneous variable. Confounded relationship When the dependent variable is not free from the effects of the extraneous variable, the relationship between the dependent and independent variable is confounded

4.

5.

Experimental & Non experimental design In experimental design there is a manipulation of the independent variable Experimental & control groups In an experimental study the group that is subjected to some special treatment/ conditions is the experimental group. The group that is not subjected to any special treatment or conditions is the control group

6.

Research Design depends upon the research problem

y

If the problem is explanatory the design is explanatory design

If the problem describes the characteristics of something or someone it is a descriptive design

If the problem formulates an experimental hypothesis it is an experimental design

RESEARCH DESIGN Review of Literature

Sources of information

Development of Bibliography

Nature of study

Objective of study

Socio-cultural context of study

Geographical areas to be covered Time dimension Assumptions and limitations Sampling design Techniques of data analysis Control of error Reliability and validity of test instruments Chapter scheme

Sampling Design
Sample is a smaller representative of a larger whole
y y

It is a representative of the universe It is an element of any population

The method of selecting such a sample for the purpose of studying and drawing conclusions about the universe is known as sampling

Sampling design is the theoretical basis and practical means by which we infer the characteristics of some population by generalizing from the characteristics of relatively few units from the population

Important terms in sampling design

y

Population is the aggregate of all units possessing certain specified characteristics on which the sample seeks to draw inferences.

E.g.: all middle class families of Tamil Nadu

y

Census is the total enumeration of all units of a population

Random: Each and every element of a population has an equal and independent chance of being chosen for the sample

Unit of analysis: The unit of analysis is the major entity that you are analyzing in your study. For instance, any of the following could be a unit of analysis in a study:
individuals groups artifacts (books, photos, newspapers) geographical units (town, census tract, state) social interactions (dyadic relations, divorces, arrests)

Attribute: Characteristic possessive trait of an element of a population.

Statistic: Value or attribute or characteristic of a sample

Parameter:Value or attribute or characteristic of a population

Estimation: When we use sample statistics to draw inferences about a population it is estimation

Bias: Tendency of an error

Sampling error: The degree to which sample statistic differs from the population parameter

Precision: If repeated samples are drawn from one population, consistency among the separate samples is a measure of precision

Steps in sampling process

Define the population Specify sampling frame Specify sampling unit Specify sampling method Determine sampling size Specify sampling plan Select sample

Principles/ Laws of Sampling

y

Principle of Statistical Regularity This law states that a moderately large number of items (samples) chosen at random from a larger group (population) are almost sure on an average to possess the characteristics of the larger group Condition necessary for this law to work Sample should be chosen at random

Principle of Inertia of large numbers

Larger the numbers, greater the inertia i.e. stability, steadiness and consistency Larger the size of the sample, more accurate the results

Essential of good sampling

1. 2. 3.

Sample should be representative There should no bias in selection Samples should be independent of each other

4. 5.

Quality and time of sample should be same It should be possible measure the sampling error

6.

Sample should be adequate or of sufficient size Sample should be small enough to avoid unnecessary expenses and large enough to avoid sampling error beyond the limit of tolerance.

Some important points in deciding sample size

y

It items of the universe are homogenous a small sample can serve the purpose

If the items are to be intensively and continuously studied then sample size should be small

If many class groups are to be formed then sample size should be large

The greater the accuracy desired larger should be the sample size

Sampling methodsSimple/
Random or Probability sampling Unrestricted Random sampling Restricted Random sampling Accidental sampling

Stratified sampling Systematic sampling Cluster & area sampling Multiphase/ stage sampling Sequential sampling

Sampling methods

Quota sampling Non Random or Non Probability sampling

Purposive sampling Convenience sampling