23 - Evolution of Populations Text

Chapter 23
The Evolution of Populations
PowerPoint Lectures for Biology, Seventh Edition

Neil Campbell and Jane Reece
Lectures by Chris Romero

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Overview: The Smallest Unit of Evolution One common misconception about evolution is that individual organisms evolve, in the Darwinian sense, during their lifetimes Natural selection acts on individuals, but populations evolve
Genetic variations in populations

Contribute to evolution
Figure 23.1
Concept 23.1: Population genetics provides a foundation for studying evolution Microevolution
Is change in the genetic makeup of a population from generation to generation
Figure 23.2
The Modern Synthesis Population genetics

Is the study of how populations change genetically over time Reconciled Darwins and Mendels ideas
The modern synthesis

Integrates Mendelian genetics with the Darwinian theory of evolution by natural selection Focuses on populations as units of evolution
Gene Pools and Allele Frequencies A population

Is a localized group of individuals that are capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring
MAP AREA
Fairbanks
Fortymile herd range
Whitehorse
Figure 23.3
The gene pool

Is the total aggregate of genes in a population at any one time Consists of all gene loci in all individuals of the population
The Hardy-Weinberg Theorem The Hardy-Weinberg theorem

Describes a population that is not evolving States that the frequencies of alleles and genotypes in a populations gene pool remain constant from generation to generation provided that only Mendelian segregation and recombination of alleles are at work
Mendelian inheritance
Preserves genetic variation in a population
Generation 1 CWCW CRCR genotype genotype Plants mate
Generation 2 All CRCW (all pink flowers)
50% CW gametes Come together at random
50% CR gametes
Generation 3 25% CRCR
50% CRCW
25% CWCW
50% CR gametes
50% CW gametes
Come together at random
Generation 4 25% CRCR 50% CRCW 25% CWCW Alleles segregate, and subsequent generations also have three types of flowers in the same proportions
Figure 23.4
Preservation of Allele Frequencies In a given population where gametes contribute to the next generation randomly, allele frequencies will not change
Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium

Describes a population in which random mating occurs Describes a population where allele frequencies do not change
A population in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium

Gametes for each generation are drawn at random from the gene pool of the previous generation: 80% CR (p = 0.8) 20% CW (q = 0.2)
Sperm
CR (80%) CW (20%)
p2
CR (80%)
pq
Eggs
p2 64% CRCR CW (20%)
16% CRCW
qp
16% CRCW
4% CWCW
q2 If the gametes come together at random, the genotype frequencies of this generation are in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium: 64% CRCR, 32% CRCW, and 4% CWCW
Gametes of the next generation: 16% CR from 64% CR from + RCW homozygotes RCR homozygotes C C 4% CW from CWCW homozygotes
= =
80% CR = 0.8 = p 20% CW = 0.2 = q
16% CW from CRCW heterozygotes
With random mating, these gametes will result in the same mix of plants in the next generation:
Figure 23.5
64% CRCR, 32% CRCW and 4% CWCW plants
If p and q represent the relative frequencies of the only two possible alleles in a population at a particular locus, then
p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1 And p2 and q2 represent the frequencies of the homozygous genotypes and 2pq represents the frequency of the heterozygous genotype
Conditions for Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium The Hardy-Weinberg theorem

Describes a hypothetical population
In real populations
Allele and genotype frequencies do change over time
The five conditions for non-evolving populations are rarely met in nature
Extremely large population size No gene flow No mutations Random mating No natural selection
Population Genetics and Human Health We can use the Hardy-Weinberg equation
To estimate the percentage of the human population carrying the allele for an inherited disease
Concept 23.2: Mutation and sexual recombination produce the variation that makes evolution possible Two processes, mutation and sexual recombination
Produce the variation in gene pools that contributes to differences among individuals
Mutation Mutations
Are changes in the nucleotide sequence of DNA
Cause new genes and alleles to arise
Figure 23.6
Point Mutations A point mutation

Is a change in one base in a gene Can have a significant impact on phenotype Is usually harmless, but may have an adaptive impact
Mutations That Alter Gene Number or Sequence Chromosomal mutations that affect many loci
Are almost certain to be harmful May be neutral and even beneficial
Gene duplication
Duplicates chromosome segments
Mutation Rates Mutation rates

Tend to be low in animals and plants Average about one mutation in every 100,000 genes per generation Are more rapid in microorganisms
Sexual Recombination In sexually reproducing populations, sexual recombination

Is far more important than mutation in producing the genetic differences that make adaptation possible
Concept 23.3: Natural selection, genetic drift, and gene flow can alter a populations genetic composition Three major factors alter allele frequencies and bring about most evolutionary change
Natural selection Genetic drift Gene flow
Natural Selection Differential success in reproduction

Results in certain alleles being passed to the next generation in greater proportions
Genetic Drift Statistically, the smaller a sample

The greater the chance of deviation from a predicted result
Genetic drift
Describes how allele frequencies can fluctuate unpredictably from one generation to the next Tends to reduce genetic variation
CRCR CRCW CRCR Only 5 of 10 plants leave offspring CWCW CRCW CRCR Only 2 of 10 plants leave offspring CRCR CRCR CRCR
CWCW CRCW CRCR CRCR
CRCR
CRCR CRCW
CWCW
CRCR CRCR
CRCR
CRCR CRCR
CRCW CRCW CRCW
CWCW
CRCR CRCW CRCR
CRCR
Generation 1 p (frequency of CR) = 0.7 q (frequency of CW) = 0.3
Generation 2 p = 0.5 q = 0.5
Generation 3 p = 1.0 q = 0.0
Figure 23.7
The Bottleneck Effect In the bottleneck effect

A sudden change in the environment may drastically reduce the size of a population The gene pool may no longer be reflective of the original populations gene pool
(a) Shaking just a few marbles through the narrow neck of a bottle is analogous to a drastic reduction in the size of a population after some environmental disaster. By chance, blue marbles are over-represented in the new population and gold marbles are absent.
Original population
Bottlenecking event
Surviving population
Figure 23.8 A
Understanding the bottleneck effect

Can increase understanding of how human activity affects other species
(b) Similarly, bottlenecking a population of organisms tends to reduce genetic variation, as in these northern elephant seals in California that were once hunted nearly to extinction.
Figure 23.8 B
The Founder Effect The founder effect

Occurs when a few individuals become isolated from a larger population Can affect allele frequencies in a population
Gene Flow Gene flow

Causes a population to gain or lose alleles Results from the movement of fertile individuals or gametes Tends to reduce differences between populations over time
Concept 23.4: Natural selection is the primary mechanism of adaptive evolution Natural selection
Accumulates and maintains favorable genotypes in a population
Genetic Variation Genetic variation

Occurs in individuals in populations of all species Is not always heritable
(a) Map butterflies that emerge in spring: orange and brown
(b) Map butterflies that emerge in late summer: black and white
Figure 23.9 A, B
Variation Within a Population Both discrete and quantitative characters

Contribute to variation within a population
Discrete characters
Can be classified on an either-or basis
Quantitative characters
Vary along a continuum within a population
Polymorphism Phenotypic polymorphism

Describes a population in which two or more distinct morphs for a character are each represented in high enough frequencies to be readily noticeable
Genetic polymorphisms
Are the heritable components of characters that occur along a continuum in a population
Measuring Genetic Variation Population geneticists

Measure the number of polymorphisms in a population by determining the amount of heterozygosity at the gene level and the molecular level
Average heterozygosity
Measures the average percent of loci that are heterozygous in a population
Variation Between Populations Most species exhibit geographic variation

Differences between gene pools of separate populations or population subgroups
1 2.4 3.14 5.18 6 7.15
8.11
9.12
10.16
13.17
19
XX
2.19
3.8
4.16
5.14
6.7
Figure 23.10
9.10
11.12
13.17
15.18
XX
Some examples of geographic variation occur as a cline, which is a graded change in a trait along a geographic axis
Heights of yarrow plants grown in common garden EXPERIMENT Researchers observed that the average size Mean height (cm) Atitude (m) of yarrow plants (Achillea) growing on the slopes of the Sierra Nevada mountains gradually decreases with increasing elevation. To eliminate the effect of environmental differences at different elevations, researchers collected seeds from various altitudes and planted them in a common garden. They then measured the heights of the resulting plants.
RESULTS The average plant sizes in the common garden were inversely correlated with the altitudes at which the seeds were collected, although the height differences were less than in the plants natural environments.
Sierra Nevada Range
Great Basin Plateau
CONCLUSION The lesser but still measurable clinal variation in yarrow plants grown at a common elevation demonstrates the role of genetic as well as environmental differences.
Seed collection sites
Figure 23.11
A Closer Look at Natural Selection From the range of variations available in a population
Natural selection increases the frequencies of certain genotypes, fitting organisms to their environment over generations
Evolutionary Fitness The phrases struggle for existence and survival of the fittest
Are commonly used to describe natural selection Can be misleading
Reproductive success
Is generally more subtle and depends on many factors
Fitness
Is the contribution an individual makes to the gene pool of the next generation, relative to the contributions of other individuals
Relative fitness
Is the contribution of a genotype to the next generation as compared to the contributions of alternative genotypes for the same locus
Directional, Disruptive, and Stabilizing Selection Selection

Favors certain genotypes by acting on the phenotypes of certain organisms
Three modes of selection are

Directional Disruptive Stabilizing
Directional selection
Favors individuals at one end of the phenotypic range
Disruptive selection
Favors individuals at both extremes of the phenotypic range
Stabilizing selection
Favors intermediate variants and acts against extreme phenotypes
The three modes of selection

Original population
Original population
Evolved population
Phenotypes (fur color)
(a) Directional selection shifts the overall makeup of the population by favoring variants at one extreme of the distribution. In this case, darker mice are favored because they live among dark rocks and a darker fur color conceals them from predators.
(b) Disruptive selection favors variants at both ends of the distribution. These mice have colonized a patchy habitat made up of light and dark rocks, with the result that mice of an intermediate color are at a disadvantage.
(c) Stabilizing selection removes extreme variants from the population and preserves intermediate types. If the environment consists of rocks of an intermediate color, both light and dark mice will be selected against.
Fig 23.12 AC
The Preservation of Genetic Variation Various mechanisms help to preserve genetic variation in a population
Diploidy Diploidy
Maintains genetic variation in the form of hidden recessive alleles
alancing Selection Balancing selection

Occurs when natural selection maintains stable frequencies of two or more phenotypic forms in a population Leads to a state called balanced polymorphism
Heterozygote Advantage Some individuals who are heterozygous at a particular locus

Have greater fitness than homozygotes
Natural selection
Will tend to maintain two or more alleles at that locus
The sickle-cell allele

Causes mutations in hemoglobin but also confers malaria resistance Exemplifies the heterozygote advantage
Distribution of malaria caused by Plasmodium falciparum (a protozoan)
Figure 23.13
Frequencies of the sickle-cell allele 02.5% 2.55.0% 5.07.5% 7.510.0% 10.012.5% >12.5%
Frequency-Dependent Selection In frequency-dependent selection

The fitness of any morph declines if it becomes too common in the population
An example of frequency-dependent selection

Parental population sample On pecking a moth image the blue jay receives a food reward. If the bird does not detect a moth on either screen, it pecks the green circle to continue to a new set of images (a new feeding opportunity).
Experimental group sample

Phenotypic diversity
0.06 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.02 0 20 Frequencyindependent control
Plain background
Patterned background
60 40 80 Generation number
100
Figure 23.14
Neutral Variation Neutral variation

Is genetic variation that appears to confer no selective advantage
Sexual Selection Sexual selection

Is natural selection for mating success Can result in sexual dimorphism, marked differences between the sexes in secondary sexual characteristics
Intrasexual selection
Is a direct competition among individuals of one sex for mates of the opposite sex
Intersexual selection
Occurs when individuals of one sex (usually females) are choosy in selecting their mates from individuals of the other sex May depend on the showiness of the males appearance
Figure 23.15
The Evolutionary Enigma of Sexual Reproduction Sexual reproduction

Produces fewer reproductive offspring than asexual reproduction, a so-called reproductive handicap
Asexual reproduction Female Generation 1 Female Sexual reproduction
Generation 2
Male
Generation 3
Generation 4
Figure 23.16
If sexual reproduction is a handicap, why has it persisted?

It produces genetic variation that may aid in disease resistance
Why Natural Selection Cannot Fashion Perfect Organisms
Evolution is limited by historical constraints Adaptations are often compromises
Chance and natural selection interact Selection can only edit existing variations

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Chapter 23

The Evolution of Populations

PowerPoint Lectures for Biology, Seventh Edition

Lectures by Chris Romero

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Genetic variations in populations

The Modern Synthesis Population genetics

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

The modern synthesis

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Gene Pools and Allele Frequencies A population

Fortymile herd range

The gene pool

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

The Hardy-Weinberg Theorem The Hardy-Weinberg theorem

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Generation 2 All CRCW (all pink flowers)

50% CW gametes Come together at random

Generation 3 25% CRCR

Come together at random

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

A population in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium

p2 64% CRCR CW (20%)

80% CR = 0.8 = p 20% CW = 0.2 = q

16% CW from CRCW heterozygotes

64% CRCR, 32% CRCW and 4% CWCW plants

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Conditions for Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium The Hardy-Weinberg theorem

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Cause new genes and alleles to arise

Point Mutations A point mutation

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Mutation Rates Mutation rates

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Sexual Recombination In sexually reproducing populations, sexual recombination

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Natural Selection Differential success in reproduction

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Genetic Drift Statistically, the smaller a sample

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

CWCW CRCW CRCR CRCR

CRCW CRCW CRCW

CRCR CRCW CRCR

Generation 1 p (frequency of CR) = 0.7 q (frequency of CW) = 0.3

Generation 2 p = 0.5 q = 0.5

Generation 3 p = 1.0 q = 0.0

The Bottleneck Effect In the bottleneck effect

Understanding the bottleneck effect

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

The Founder Effect The founder effect

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Gene Flow Gene flow

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings